Charity Marketing
Table of Contents
Abstract
This literature review provides a comprehensive analysis of charity marketing. Overall, this research shows that charity refers to what people give to alleviate other people’s suffering, need and sorrows, whether they know them or not. Since the inception of religion, mankind has regarded giving as the first and foremost moral obligation. However, this notion has changed over time. People no longer regard giving as an obligation, the reasons for giving of late encompasses guilt, snobbery and self interest. Charities have employed commercial marketing techniques to drive their target audiences towards giving for the plight of the beneficiaries. For instance, charities use images with connotations of human suffering to drive these audiences towards giving. When this audience gives, they do not do so because it is an act of generosity, but because they want to shed off the guilt. This review examines the underlying ethical issues relating to charity appeals and their impacts in three themes that relate to each other.
Charity Marketing
Introduction
Most of the literature on charity marketing concentrates on the psychological aspects that may interfere with the audience’s pro-social reactions to charity appeals. A good example of this literature is those that examine that effectiveness of charity marketing in promoting different issues (Bagozzi & Moore, 1994). Furthermore, there are those that examine the importance of social desirability factors, when coming up with the content of charity fundraising campaigns (Louie & Obermiller, 2000). Another different area of research explores diverse marketing techniques (Basil, Ridgeway & Basil, 2008). More recent work focuses on the use of images portraying human suffering in fundraising campaigns (e.g. Burt & Strongman, 2005; Sciulli, Bhagat & Bebko, 2012). From a general perspective, this review will focus on the ethics and impacts of charity appeals. The first theme shall examine the unethical issues surrounding the use of images connoting human suffering in charity appeals. The second theme points income maximization as the main motivation factor behind fundraising campaigns. The last theme underscores the notion that these appeals have a preference for eliciting sympathy rather than arousing empathy.
This research undertakes a search of terms related to ethics and impact of charity appeals using several academic literature databases and using the snowball method. The initial result of this search is composed of a large number of irrelevant references that related to guilt appeals, fear appeals and cause related marketing. There was also lots of irrelevant literature on comparative ethics under the context of human rights. The search terms, academic databases and limiters to be searched were identified through a combination of preliminary scoping of literature and brainstorming technique. The strategies employed in the literature search entailed a systematic search of selected academic literature databases and “snowball” technique. These search criteria identified 534 references. Following the application of the search criteria to these references, 86 references remained. Besides, “snowball” technique and citation tracking identified 9 relevant references. Formal content analysis and scoping followed this process.
Scope of the study
To Louie & Obermiller (2000), charity marketing is different from corporate giving or philanthropy since it is a form of marketing that entails relationship. Furthermore, it is not tax deductible like philanthropy. This research shows that, charity marketing has been there since time immemorial, but the most common case that is documented was in 1974, when John Carr started a foundation ‘The Foundation for Charitable Giving’. Historically, Chaib & Selander (2011) postulated that, this foundation focused on giving back to the community. Carr engaged in business and charity so that he could support the two ventures. The businesses had to give back some type of referral amount on what is paid for marketing. This money was then redirected back to charity. In the 21st century, charity marketing is a major marketing tool that most corporations are banking on. Recent studies have shown that most people switch from one type of brand to another related product that is associated with charity or good cause (Basil et al, 2008).
The Search Process
|
| 1 | Charity marketing |
| 2 | Charity appeals |
| 3 | Charity advertisement |
| 4 | Fear appeals |
| 5 | Guilt appeal |
| 6 | Cause related marketing |
| 7 | Ethics and impacts of charity appeals |
| 8 | Ethical issues in charity marketing |
This research undertook to search for search terms indicated in Table 1 on electronic academic marketing literature databases. A good example of electronic database that proved useful was Google scholar and Palgrave Macmillan journal. These databases were also searched for reviews of ethical issues in charity marketing. The identified references were downloaded into reference management software known as Endnote X2. Truncation of the search terms made it possible to search of plurals and other suffixes. For instance, “appeal$” captured”appeal” and “appeals”. Furthermore, Boolean terms such as “OR” and “AND” were used to locate references that had a combination of search terms. Where possible, the limiter “charity’ was applied to academic literature database resources. A utilization of some of the tools in these databases enabled a comprehensive literature search.More references were located using “snowball” technique and citation tracking. This process entailed searching for the right references located through other literature. This did not entail a systematic search of academic literature references. The obtained references were downloaded into Endnote X2 for further analysis. This research adopted a five phase review process of the literature identified. The first phase entailed an identification of the review parameters. The parameters identified were in tandem with the requirements of Statewide Quality Branch. The second phase entailed the search for literature on ethics and impacts of charity appeals. Phase three entailed screening the literature for relevant references. The literatures that were examined the ethics and impact of charity appeals succeeded to the next phase. However, the literature that seemed irrelevant and not pertinent to this review was excluded.
Phase four entailed a review of the resulting literature. The selected literature focused on ethics and impact of charity appeals. Furthermore, abstracts of each of these literatures were selected and subjected to data mining and reviewed using two others. Phase five entailed an analysis of phase five while phase six entailed report writing. Leximancer 3.0 was used to subject all the selected abstracts that met the inclusion criteria (N=535) to content analysis. Leximancer 3.0 is a software program that identifies the main themes and context in the text, the association between them and the strength of those associations. It presents data as a visual map and as a ranked list of themes and concepts. Dots are used to represent the concepts in this map. The distance between the dots shows the strength of association between the concepts.
Themes
Sympathy
According to Chaib & Selander (2011), it is through the media that charities settle and establish the distance between the distant sufferer and potential of companion and action. This means that it is through the media that these charities post the advertisements connoting the needs of the beneficiary with a target of getting the attention of the donor as argued by Liddiard and Hutson (1995). However, according to Breeze and Dean (2012), a charity advert should arouse empathy among the target audience and not sympathy. While interviewing a group of young people, Breeze and Dean established that most charities just put up the sad picture with an aim of making the audience feel sorry for the beneficiaries. Furthermore, it was evident that the degree of pathos in these images often causes widespread irritation.
In a different research, Basil et al (2008) also established that sympathy arousing tactics neither addresses the underlying structural factors involved in the problem, nor educate the public about the cause and the consequences of the social problem. Anna, one of the interviewers, further reiterates this fact when she points that for a majority of people a picture of a young kid looking sad or an old man freezing to death does not play on people’s heartstrings. She does not think people will do something about the issues, even after seeing them. According to Liddiard and Hutson (1995), charities should use proper images representing the real needs of the people. When the adverts depict more ‘normal people’ they are bound to generate ‘better’ philanthropic motives unlike the guilt relieving sympathy payments. Take an example of homeless people, instead of using the most pitiful images, charities should use proper pictures of homeless people since there are different ways of being homeless. This research unveils that there are many facets of a problem. The beneficiaries might be homeless, but there are different facets of homeless.
According to Silverson (2007), these adverts do not motivate donors to give. Rather, it makes them feel guilty to the extent that they have to do it. According to the focus group that Silverson interviewed, these adverts should make the donors feel like they want to help. It should not force money out of their pockets in the name of relieving themselves from guilt. Furthermore, Small & Verochi (2009) assert that most of these advertisements showcase human suffering with an aim of generating feelings of compassion and pity.
The research conducted by Vaux (2001) was similar to that of Breeze and Dean (2012) who postulated that the fact that charity appeals use images that elicits sympathy and not empathy among the target audiences. While interviewing five focus groups in England on their views on the images of homelessness, this research outlined that a major campaign aimed at raising money to support homelessness services across England and beyond.
These focus groups were composed entirely of young homeless people who understood the issues involved with homelessness. Furthermore, these groups understood the issues involved with homelessness and the perceptions of people like themselves that exist in the public and in the awareness of the potential donors. Apart from pointing that the goal of fundraising through charity appeals is to maximize revenues, these groups also underscored that the imagery used arouses sympathy rather than empathy. However, Sargeant & Woodliffe (2007 and Basil et al (2008), while examining the reason for the use of images of suffering in charity appeals pointed that charities have no choice owing to the unique nature of their market. Since their advertisements are supposed to generate action on the behalf of the sufferers, the images have to manipulate the audience’s internal emotions. This generates responsibility and feelings of sympathy and compassion that is important if the audience is to support the sufferers (Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007).
Tester (2001, p. 32) reveal that most charities use images of particulars sufferers since they have a longstanding awareness of the effectiveness of these images in getting the audience’s attention. He further points that spectators may feel more inclined to donate when particular sufferers are presented because the donation is a form of pro-social behaviour and the media constitute both physical and social approximation (Chaib & Selander, 2011). This is an indication that the charities are taking advantage of the emotions of the donors which in essence is unethical as supported by Sargeant & Woodliffe (2007)
That these images have their ideal victims make them centred towards eliciting emotions. An ‘ideal victim’ is a category of individuals or a person who is given the complete and legitimate label of being a victim when crime hits them. Homer & Batra (2004, p517) note from a general perspective that children, mothers and the elderly are the ideal victims of these appeals compared to men. Unlike men, these categories of people are bound to be sympathetic and compassionate when they see the images. According to Chouliaraki (2010, p111), the purpose for using these images is to make the viewers a witness of the horror of suffering. Having made them witnesses, it is obvious that they are bound to respond in a manner to stop it. This assertion is in line with that of Sargeant & Woodliffe (2007), who point that people tend to adjust their behaviour to daunt a threat of an adverse future social alteration. This means that people are bound to support the cause of the charities.
Although Cohen (2001) applauses the use of positive images, he points that the negative image, dehumanizing the sufferer, is most responsible for causing sentiments of compassion fatigue to the audience. Most audiences loathe such horrific scenes that every time they see them they face aside (Sargeant & Woodliffe, 2007). No wonder it is important to use images that arouse empathy than those that arouse sympathy. On the other hand, Chang & Lee (2009) point that these images are still the most effective in appealing for imperative action despite the criticisms being levelled against them. As much as this might be true, it is important to note that trends are changing. Most of the audience loathe that which levies guilt on them. This necessitates the use of images that arouse empathy and not sympathy.
Key Lessons
In essence, most authors from the ongoing discussion affirm that most organizations have used sympathy in charity marketing. The major concern about most advertisements is the fact that they have a preference for eliciting sympathy thus attracting a wide number of audiences. By utilizing this strategy, most organizations have a chance to convert first time clients to potential and frequent clients.
Intrinsic Motivation
Chouliaraki (2006) argues that it is through the media that charities settle and establish the distance between the distant sufferer and potential of companion and action. This means that it is through the media that these charities post the advertisements connoting the needs of the beneficiary with a target of getting the attention of the donor. Charities often use images connoting human suffering as a bait to get audience. On the other hand, according to Small & Verrochi (2009), the norm in charity appeals is the use of particular images of suffering to generate feelings of compassion and pity among the target audience. That this image tells an accurate story is still under contestation. Even if the story is accurate, it can still be interpreted in a wrong manner. This is an indication that these images are open to interpretation. According to Paech (2004), marketing demands the highest standards of ethical awareness. As much as charities should show the world what the many people who are in need, it is important to do that without the intention to shock. Ethical standards require charities to show realities as much as possible so as not to harm the very individuals that they are trying to help. However, this is not the case. Stoddart (2004) in an interview in London pointed that most charities often go to extremes. There is no time for them to play fair. They are only interested in the moment of death since it is such moments that maximize their revenue.
Howard (2000) warns of the serious repercussions that beneficiaries often undergo especially when the photographers taking photos for the charity fails the accountability test. While on an assignment in an Afghan refugee camp, a photojournalist ignored the warning from a UNHCR press officer of the inappropriateness of showing young Afghan girls. He went further and snatched the photo of a girl while she was bathing in a river. Later, the photo appeared on the cover of a top newspaper, with the name of the girl under the caption. When the Mujahedeen saw this photo they slew the girl for having caused a disgrace to Islam. Not even a million apologies from the charity behind this photo could undo the damage of this irresponsible reporting. According to Taylor (1988), negative images have portrayed Africa as a doomed continent. To make matters worse, it has reinforced colonial stereotypes. On the other hand, the positive images made viewers to assume that help has reached the beneficiaries. These images are synonymous to goods produced in one part of the world and sold in another part of the world. Das et al. (2003) cites the absence of political action while charities manipulate the images that frame suffering for news production and fundraising. According to him, this lack of political action is a pointer that the Western nations tend to view the beneficiaries as less civilized. This is because they will go to all ends to ensure equality in their nations, yet do nothing those outside their democracies. No wonder the plight of these nations have been left to charities and mass media whose ulterior motive seems not to be in sync with the motive of the beneficiaries.
According to Bagozzi & Moore (1994), hypothesize those public service advertisements designed to reduce the cases of child abuse often fail to attract help because they stimulate negative emotions. These authors build this assertion on Lazarus’s general theory of emotions and adaptation whose sole aim is to examine the effects of public service advertisements on helping responses. They point that such advertisements often lead to emphatic reactions, making them ineffective. This research confirms that images containing human suffering do not necessarily lead to positive results. To Chang and Lee (2009), most charity organizations start to expand their outreach and marketing programs during holiday seasons. According to charities, holidays are seasons of giving. Thus, they need an effective marketing strategy if they are going to reap the most out of that season. In a different research, Homer & Batra (1994) continue to argue that an important element of charity marketing is that it creates goodwill on corporate goods and services. Therefore, this establishes a positive response and more consumers will want to be associated with the brand. It also helps in gaining exposure for the business. This is done by leveraging the current audience. After conducting a comprehensive research, Paech (2004) gave out his different views regarding this subject. Unlike Homer & Batra (1994), Paech (2004) argued that charity marketing also helps in the trading on recognizing another brand label that is charity by itself. The charitable activities give the corporate or organization something new for publicity. This will be in the press release or it could be in the social media. In the long run positive feedback will be received and may turn into increased traffic to the corporate websites or purchase of the brands.
Organizations can also utilize intrinsic motivation during sponsor or charitable events (Burnett, 1986). According to Burnett, this is the most efficient strategy in charity marketing. It entails having tablecloths or anything that is associated with your brand. Moreover, Vaux (2001) believes that having the corporate name on the list of the sponsors is a good way of brand recognition. If the brand is related to with the event, Vaux believes that it greatly helps to market the corporate goods and services. Conversely, Howard (2000) believes that the corporation should look for a charity in the community that it thinks it can make a product for them. This should be something that the charity could sell. Also, it could be something that you can sell on their behalf. But care should be taken to make sure all details are first cleared by the charity.
Other studies show that an organization can foster good relationships by getting their brand into the community (Colin, 2002). Also, Howard (2000) believes that this can be done by creating a team that consists of the employees and some loyal consumers or customers. The team will then participate in some fundraising activity or engage in some race. During this period they will have some good time and at the same time they will be wearing custom T-shirts or overall. These custom wear advertise their business in the process. The group can also partner with a charity. But by doing so, the group should be aware of all laws concerning charities and taxation.
Key Lessons
Overall, most authors from the ongoing discussion agree that charities can partner with a national organization or a local charity and then ask the invited guests when they check out if they’ll be willing to contribute an additional amount to a cause. This has great benefit to their business because it will help consumers associate their business with philanthropy. It will also help them to be mentioned in the press that their business helped to raise a certain amount to the charity.
Income Maximization
Income maximization is the priority of most charity organizations. This can be looked at the response they generate and income they receive. According to Debrix, & Weber, (2003) the black body is mostly viewed in a social stereotyping way in charity. He argued that images that depicted black African children were associated with poverty and famine. Most charities use these images so that they create sympathy hence more income. According to Perlmutter (1998), the images that usually report about a disaster situation often use metonymy. This is where a single characteristic is usually used to employ a complex identity. He argued that images of emaciated children were used as a very powerful form of visual framing. It depicted the collection of African problems. This catches the donors’ attention. Goldberg & Solomos (2002) and Malkki did a study on European refugees. He noted that in Europe most people had never seen refugees in their continent. They had witnessed the Rwandan genocide. So when the media in collaboration with some charities went to focus on their appeal the response was great. More donations were sent but it created some debate about race issues. Some argued that there were some double standards.
According to Vaux (2001), snobbery, guilt and self-interest are major reasons for charitable giving today. She argued at the earlier priorities of most charities. Religion had played a significant role in that people believed that giving was an obligation. Morals boosted the amount people and donors donated. People donate today since they have the perception that they will need it in the future. They donate without questioning the conduct of the charities. During terror threats this is mostly influenced by the media. This necessitated most charities to cash in on this to get more income appeals (Howard, 2000).
Some charities are so determined to get more income that they resort to some form of falsehood. According to Colin (2002), he published some collection of pictures that photographers had used. One such photo was apparently taken in Red Sea Hills during the famine in Sudan. A child was made to sit on the sand and his photo taken to be used for appeal. He argues that UNICEF used that image for advertising purpose. The perception that Africans are helpless and with that type of image evoke serious emotions that people in western countries will donate more. Some charities resort to download some images from the internet that had been taken by photojournalists. These images do not correlate to the current situation and thus they may be appealing but they lie to the public.
According to Howard (2000) sometimes the charities use real images but wrong caption. They do so intentionally to create a debate and outcry. This tends to create more publicity and extensive coverage. This in the long run translates to more donations. An example was in Afghanistan where a photo of a little girl bathing in the river was used. It turned tragic when the Taliban extremists executed her saying she was a disgrace to their religion. Some charity cash in on a photo that was solely for the media. Maren (2002) focused on the scenario where a charity organization used the photo of a starving girl with a vulture waiting. The image was taken by Carter in Sudan and the charity organization didn’t have any operations in Sudan at that time. They simply used that image for advertising knowing well that they will get more donations. The image was used knowing well they didn’t provide relief aid that would have otherwise saved the child used as the icon.
According to Das et al. (2003) the consumption of suffering reiterates that our civilization is developed. He argued that charities tend to use anonymous images that act as tools for generating compassion for the suffering. They manipulate the public to believe what they see translating to more income. On the other hand, Small & Verrochi (2009) argued that most photographers win prizes and awards by showing human misery. At the same time charities depend on human suffering as a means for them to generate funds. It raises the question whether our generosity is becoming a syndrome referred as compassion fatigue or donor apathy.
The images used by charities also tend to make the donors to be judgmental of the beneficiaries (Platt, 1999). An example is the case of homelessness in the UK where the donors tend to respond to beneficiary as victim that is deserving and unwilling. According to Rosenthal (2000) the beneficiaries are looked down upon as the situation they are in is on their wish. Some charities therefore use some photos of people sleeping in the subway or collecting trash at dustbins. As pointed by Breeze & Dean (2012), it became clear that most charities want to maximize income. Some therefore go extreme measures to achieve this goal. For this reason some beneficiaries lose their dignity and some end up losing their lives. An example is the case of the Afghan girl whose photo was used and was murdered by Taliban extremists. Images that depict suffering should be used with care. At the end of the day everyone deserves some respect and dignity (Rosenthal, 2000).
A research by Breeze & Dean (2012) show that, charity marketing should exercise ethics in business. Images have shown that they are very powerful and it can’t be measured by words. Their sole reason is to empower and educate people. Images from disaster environments such as famine, war or natural calamity have some deep economic and political value as further noted by Burnett (1986). These images are to express communication, but in most cases, they are usually abused. They end up being used as propaganda tools if handled in a wrong way by self-interested organizations and charities (Chouliaraki, 2010). Charities should therefore have some education roles and re-evaluate their representational ways. In as much as they will want to gain more income to help the underprivileged they should change the approach. This will help in reducing the stereotypes that exist. A better informed public will be able to relate well with known people and can at the end actively engage in global affairs. This can help in solving some problems that relate to dependence.
Key Lessons
Overall, most authors agree that, advertising helps most charities to create awareness about their causes and in the end win some financial support. They elicit some reactions from the public. The public is mostly made up of donor groups that are of different age group and gender. Typically, most authors agree that the images that facilitate emergency appeals are usually chosen so as to create a response from the citizenry. Charity reporting helps boost the income by associating with multinationals and since it is big brands they will tend to donate more. In this way the corporations will tend to influence its customers or employees to donate more. This is to help them retain their image and in the process more income for the charities.
Donor’s gender sometimes plays a major role in the amount that is contributed. According to CAF & NCVO (2003), women in the UK donated more. The average amount contributed by women was far much than that of men. For this reason most charities exploit this observation. However, some writers believe that most charities therefore use images of lone children or mother with a young child suffering to appeal for aid. These types of images tend to create some empathy among the women. They mostly feel a sense of motherhood and will do everything in their capacity to make sure that they contribute. Some authors argue that this observation is stereotyping of the gender.
Methodology
The methodology of the study involved a qualitative approach associated with the social constructivist paradigm that emphasizes the nature of charity marketing. Basically, most researchers in the first theme were interested in compiling rich and complex information about the subject. Most authors developed theories and pattern to base the data they collected. Data collection was conducting in several stages. Most researchers observed a set number of corporate that used charity marketing. After conducting their research and collecting their data, most authors articulated that sympathy is a common strategy used in charity marketing. Most importantly, most researchers in the first theme were able to compile adequate facts and information from the field thus making the study more cohesive. Overall, the research was deep in content.
In the second theme, which revolves around intrinsic motivation most authors relied on the existing data from the literature review. Analyzing the existing data created massive insights on how most organizations utilize intrinsic motivation in charity marketing. However, few authors such as Homer & Batra (1994), Paech (2004) collected their information from survey. After conducting their research, the three authors believed that charity marketing helps in the trading and recognizing the brand. The surveys made by the authors in theme two helped to obtain how organizations adopt intrinsic motivation in charity marketing.
In the third theme, most authors utilized case studies to compile their research on income maximization. For instance, Malkki (1997) examined the disaster situation that was witnessed in Ethiopia and Sudan during the famine of 1960s and early 1970s. The images used depicted masses of hungry people. They were staring at the reporters in sympathetic face. Also during that period some charities used some photos of black bodies lining up waiting for food donations. This created a worldwide outcry and the international community had to step in by sending more donations.
Conclusion
This review focuses on the ethics and impacts of charity appeals. The first theme underscores the notion that these appeals have a preference for eliciting sympathy rather than arousing empathy. The second theme examines the unethical issues surrounding the use of images connoting human suffering in charity appeals. Most of these images send a message that the beneficiaries are too stupid and ignorant to take care of themselves. Furthermore, the images point that should the donor’s fail to help the beneficiaries then they are doomed since their governments and parents are not responsible enough to help them (Perlmutter 1998, p. 25). No wonder Jerry Michaud of the End Hunger Network in a letter to Save the Children Fund (SCF) described their advertisement campaign as a form of “hunger form”. The last theme points income maximization as the main motivation factor behind fundraising campaigns. To Das, Kleinman & Lock (2003), charities should redirect the eyes of the public and show us the truth and positive images. This will enable us to view the world in a different approach. The beneficiaries should also be given a platform to give their stories from their own perspective. This will make us understand the situation better. The relevant laws in the respective countries of the charities should be followed (Colin, 2002). Also the global rules set by the United Nations should be adhered by all charities. By doing so, everyone will be able to work well without any exploitation in the process.
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