African American History: 1865 to present
Introduction
African American subpopulation presents a rich history that is characterized with eminent chronological movements. One can identify various historical events related to the group that dates back from 1800s to the present century. The African American current state is attributable to revolutionary activities staged by the group in earlier decades. Various aspects including social, political and economic consideration have motivated these movements. From the period of slavery, African Americans have tirelessly resisted exploitation and discriminations by presenting their demands using various tactics. Although the journey to addressing African American’s plight has been challenging, the group has eventually attained much. Examining the history of the African Americans from 1865 to the present date is essential in establishing knowledge of the group.
Strengthening of the racial state and reconstruction (1865-1876)
African American experienced severe exploitations in early 1800s especially under the slavery policy. Consequently, the group had established a strategy of reorganizing itself under racial grounds in order to fight against their opponents. This led to extensive consolidation of the group and reconstruction in 1865 through 1870s (Curran & Moshier, 2008). The period was characterized with increased European immigration; however, the Jim Crow segregation deteriorated the condition for the Blacks. Furthermore, the period was associated with ultimate invasion of the indigenous Americans and the rise of imperialism and colonialism. The African American’s activism led to constitutional Amendments in favor of the group in mid 1960s. For example, the state abolished slavery except in special cases such as when imposed as a punishment. Furthermore, the government instituted a legislation that stated that all individuals born or naturalized in the US had rights of citizenship despite their religion, race, and country of origin or their earlier situation of servitude (Dagbovie, 2010). The provision also granted men the right of voting regardless of the race or cultural background. Interestingly, these amendments disintegrated the women’s rights and Black’s rights activists. It imperative to highlight that these amendments failed to apply to non-White immigrants because the law did not allow them to be naturalized. However, they applied to non-Whites who were born in the US, which initiated a new phase of the Asian American politics. Within the reconstruction period, the union army invaded the South. The Blacks vote also became relevant as the group elected few black officials (Taylor, 2012). Furthermore, the government assumed various reforms that improved the welfare of the Blacks occurred. For example, the government established land reforms that valued the need of recognizing the missed opportunities. However, serious chaos emerged as Whites attempted to establish racial domination. Conflicts over the instituted constitutional amendments interfered with the earlier coalition established between feminists and adherent of the African-American rights. The era of reconstruction ended in 1876 in order to destroy election deadlock. The union army left the South to allow the southerners manage race concerns while the government popularized the idea of “healing” the nation by forfeit the fortune of the Blacks. Furthermore, the government refuted the idea that the aspect of slavery motivated the African American-Whites conflicts (Dagbovie, 2010).
The period of explicit racism and Blacks resistances (1877-1920)
Slavery was eradicated by 1977, but a new ratio order emerged. For example, more than 80% of all Blacks resided in rural areas where most worked in cotton farms and depended on landowners under who they were subject to exploitation. Consequently, this period witnessed increased lynching and Klu Klux Klan (KKK) violence (Curran & Moshier, 2008). The activities created these movements by utilizing proxies of race by enlightening the mass on ills of the system and its role in worsening the welfare of African Americans. The Southern states adopted the Jim Crow segregation regulations in 1880s to 1890s. Moreover, the period was characterized with the collapse of the land reform where the White elites reassumed the class privilege. The rise of Democratic Party also occurred during this period following the coalition of the Southern White farmers and Northern working class and entrepreneurs. An extensive debate that questioned the implication of supporting the Black rights occurred in late 1870s leading to total abandonment of the Black rights by 1891 (Hazen, 2004). Later populist movement challenged trans-racial association among the southern working class. This created a situation where White elites attempted to disenfranchise Blacks in order to minimize the threat. The black disenfranchisement plan entailed using calculative strategies to disenfranchise the Blacks while accomplishing racial goals. For example, the establishment of literacy requirements, poll levies and private and periodic registrations in restricted areas protected the Whites. These strategies made Blacks to lose essential political power (Dagbovie, 2010).
The epoch of late 1890s to early 1900s presented virulent racism. President Wilson and Taft promoted explicit racial based policies. A significant number of African Americans were killed during this period especially in the South. Furthermore, the government integrated the concept of scientific racism in the education system (Dawson, 2012). This ideology differentiated the northern Aryan from European in the south while providing new definitions to the idea of race. By 1919, intermitted race riots emerged where Whites attacked Blacks in various cities. For example, the Whites subpopulation raided the Blacks during the 1921 Tulsa riot. Later the Black American community launched severe activisms in which they demanded reparations for the survivors. The Greenville flood incident presented another aspect of racial discrimination that infuriated African Americans. When Mississippi flooded, ships rescued Whites while ignoring Blacks. This scenario made Blacks to change their political stand with most accepting ideologies of the Democratic wing (Alexander, 2010).
The early 1900s presents the period of extensive black resistance especially to the Jim Crow regulations. The Blacks advocated for the compensations for slavery; however, the White ignored these demands (Taylor, 2012). Consequently, the group staged various bus and consumer boycotts that challenged segregation in the cities while presenting appeals and speeches that described the controversy of citizenship and equality in the country. Particularly, the northern elites explored the concept of equality and citizenship within the American community. This resulted to patches of Black development and migrations as cowboys moved into urban centers. Furthermore, the move promoted the establishment of black colleges and political movements. Although such political affiliations were very weak to win during that particular period, they provided a platform for developing influential movements in future (Hazen, 2004).
The Harlem Renaissance
The Harlem Renaissance is a period of great relevance in the African American history that occurred in 1920s and 1930s. The movement regards to the development of the Black cultural and scholarly life that initiated in Harlem spreading to other states later. The movement affected the organization of urban centers throughout the country (Arenson, 2012). Scholars and celebrities utilized cross-cultural aspects including the music, literature, drama and social thoughts adopted from sociology and philosophy to explore the historical background of the Black Americans and the modern experiences of the Black’s plight in the urban North. These Black intellectuals challenged White paternalism and rejected emulating styles of Europeans while advocating for the need of acknowledging their Black self-esteem and creatively. Furthermore, these intellects claimed the freedom experiencing selves on their unique style by exploring their identities as Black-Americans and celebrating the black culture that evolved from slavery and appreciating their cultural relations to Africa. The Harlem Renaissance affected the Black culture considerably especially the African Diaspora. Interestingly, the Afro-Caribbean actors and elites from British West Indies supported the movement. Furthermore, the movement attracted the attention of most French-speaking Black scholars from Caribbean and African colonies who resided in Paris (Curran & Moshier, 2008).
Historian presents mixed arguments regarding the actual dates that designates the period of Harlem Renaissance. However, reliable studies highlight that the movement is likely to have stretched from 1919 to mid 1930s (Alexander, 2010). The movement thrived because of the changes that occurred in the Black community since the time of the abolishment of the slavery. These changes were fueled by the outcomes of the WW1. The movement also presents the Black expression of severe social-cultural changes occurring in America in 20th century because of the effect of industrialization and development of new popular culture. Explicit factors related to the establishment of the movement include the immense migration of Blacks to northern cities. According to Dawson (2012), the Harlem Renaissance exemplified academic and social revolutions in the society that had occurred towards the end of 19th century. By the culmination of the Civil War, most of the Blacks had suffered under slavery policies and lived in the south (Smallwood, 2003). Consequently, the movement emanated from earlier activism by the African American that includes struggle for civil participation, political representation, economic and cultural identity. Furthermore, the collapse of the reconstruction led to creation of White-supremacist authority of Jim Crow. This governance infringed on the Blacks civil and political rights while exploiting them economically. Consequently, the life in South became harsh which made the Blacks to migrate to the North in pursuit of better environment (Turner-Sadler, 2009). The largest number of individuals who spearheaded the Harlem Renaissance descended from the group that had witnessed the benefits and losses of the reconstruction epoch of the post-civil war and the offspring of slaves (Arenson, 2012). Besides the emergence of racial riots in the North, the comparatively political freedom in Harlem provided the Blacks with the opportunity for organizing themselves politically and academically. Initially, the Black middle class in the North started to support various political movements. The movements together with the new political plan that advocated for racial equality faced the White racism that promoted Jim Crow regulations. Moreover, the intellects challenged racism and stereotypic myths in the society to establish socialist politics and social integration (Smallwood, 2003).
Various factors challenged the establishment of the Harlem Renaissance that eventually led to its end. Initially, the 1930s Great Depression imposed economic pressure in various sectors of life. Consequently, organizations such as the “National Urban League” that advocated for Renaissance assumed a new dimension that started addressing economic and social concerns (Smallwood, 2003). Numerous Black elites including W.E.B Dubois and Hunges Johnson moved to France. Moreover, the Harlem Riot that was motivated by economic hardship increased tension between the White entrepreneurs and the Black community that discredited the notion of Harlem. However, the Renaissance did not disappear swiftly because about 30% of books published during the period appeared after 1929. Emerging young intellects who appeared in the 1930s emphasized social realism that substituted modernism and primitivism as the major scheme of literary and creative expression (Dawson, 2012).
The Black Power
The success of the African Americans by 1950s and 1960s towards attaining their civil rights was associated with violence. Numerous young blacks were unable to emulate the style set by Martin Luther in his non-violent reaction towards injustice in the American community. Black Panther party presents the archetype of the black power movement that endorsed the use of violence when lobbying for black justice. This was a political affiliation that emerged in mid 1960s struggled to describe a new racial awareness among the Blacks (Alexander & Rucker, 2010). The movement emanated from previous civil rights associations; however, its intention was highly controversial. Some Blacks considers that the black power highlighted racial dignity and independence. Particularly, the concept regarded to the liberty from white governance in both political and economic fields while others considered the strategy to be an economic orientation. Consequently, the movement encouraged blacks to speak their mind without fearing external pressures. Malcom X provided the rhetoric and attitudes that enabled the movement advocate for the improvement of the Black community instead of fighting for full integration (Hazen, 2004). Furthermore, Williams and Carmichael assumed significant positions in the formulation of the Black Power. Carmichael popularized the term “Black Power” while organizing student’s committee to ensure that whites are denied leadership responsibilities. Within the movement, some Blacks intended to reinstate cultural heritage and valued the need of establishing the history and the accurate roots of the black identity. The group claimed that such idea constitutes the awareness of the Black Power. Furthermore, the realization that standard of the prestige and self-esteem was central to power relations acted as a vital aspect of the movement (Arenson, 2012).
Another important aspect of the Black power entailed the need of defining the world in their perception. This included an advocacy for establishment of radical political struggle in order to face racism and imperialism in the US. Development of the idea of Black power was characterized with resistances and criticism from whites and various African American associations because of the anti-white ideology that was promoted by the movement. The Black Panther Party was the largest Black affiliation advocating for black power by 1960s (Alexander, 2010). However, the idea of Black power started to disappear in the 1970s because of the persistent criticism of the movement and the abolishment of the Black Panthers during the period. Despite the destruction of the institutions of the Black Power, various elites of African American art still consider the concept of Black Power to present a sturdy effect on the awareness of the Black Americans in the current generation. Essentially, emphasis on cultural independence and self-worth of the Black Power is still relevant (Alexander & Rucker, 2010).
The New Dimension of Black Movements from 1970s
From 1970s, the activism presented by the African Americans adopted a new phase as violent activities ended. This period was characterized with the implementation struggles and the resistance emanating from the whites changed their orientation. Furthermore, the black political associations occupied a significant position in the establishment of national government (Dawson, 2012). The affirmative action procedures were essential in presenting Blacks’ grievances. These provided non-violent strategies for fighting for racial inequalities and discriminations. Moreover, cultural nationalism developed during this period and life standards for the Blacks increased presenting reduction of poverty and increased education and college enrollment (Turner-Sadler, 2009).
The period of 1980s witnessed reaganism where conservative strikes re-emerged. This led to large cuts in welfare, scholarship programs and other social programs. Furthermore, the federal government withheld its support for the affirmative action plans in employment. Recessions are also identifiable where economic disaster is pronounced in Black urban areas that have high rates of unemployment, infant mortality, crimes, poverty, segregation and other social problems (Alexander & Rucker, 2010).
The economic challenges of 1990s to the present
From early 1990s, the Black Americans focus has shifted to economic concerns due to the prevailing economic recession. The late 1990s has experienced high levels of unemployment that have lowered people’s living standards. Furthermore, there is destruction of last resources of social welfare systems and there is no “safety net” for the entire society. The period is also characterized by increased levels of self-segregation because the rich are hardly recognizing the plight of the poor. Consequently, the economic well-being of the Black lower class is progressively declining while overt white racist movements are developing. Furthermore, the political unity among the Black affiliations is declining (Turner-Sadler, 2009).
Conclusion
It is apparent that African American subpopulation has undergone various transformations. Some of the activities launched by the group have affected legal and administration system of the entire American Society. The movements staged by the group have been motivated by various factors. Essentially, the group has constantly fought for equality, elimination of exploitative policies and acknowledgement of their identity. Evaluation of the history of the African Americans highlights that the group has successfully attained some of its objectives through strategic activism.
References
Alexander, L. M., & Rucker, W. C. (2010). Encyclopedia of African American history. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York: New Press.
Arenson, A. (2012). “Experience Rather than Imagination: Researching the Return Migration of African North Americans during the American Civil War and Reconstruction.” Journal of American Ethnic History, 32(2), 73-77.
Curran, J. J., & Moshier, K. (2008). Peekskill’s African American history: A Hudson Valley community’s untold story. Charleston, SC: History Press.
Dagbovie, P. G. (2010). African American history reconsidered. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Dawson, A. (2012). “Challenging Lilywhite Hollywood: African Americans and the Demand for Racial Equality in the Motion Picture Industry, 1963-1974.” Journal of Popular Culture, 45(6), 1206-1225. doi:10.1111/jpcu.12005
Hazen, W. A. (2004). American black history. St. Louis, Mo: Milliken.
Smallwood, A. D. (2003). Mapping African-American history. Boston, Mass: McGraw Hill.
Taylor, Q. (2012). “Facing the urban frontier: African American history in the reshaping of the twentieth-century American west.” Western Historical Quarterly, 43(1), 6-27.
Turner-Sadler, J. (2009). African American history: An introduction. New York: Peter Lang.
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