EFFECTS OF OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION IN THE NIGER DELTA

Table of Contents

CHAPTER TWO: Literature review.. 9

CHAPTER THREE: Methodology. 17

Justification of methodology. 17

Sampling. 17

Data analysis. 18

Limitations. 18

CHAPTER FOUR: Findings and analysis. 19

Gas flaring. 19

Effects from oil spills. 21

Oil spills in mangroves. 23

Effects on human beings. 27

CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion. 29

CHAPTER SIX: Recommendations. 32

Abstract

The Niger Delta is an important wetland in the world that is endowed with numerous resources including: mangrove swamps, fresh water streams and rivers, low lying rain forests, rich fishing grounds, fertile farmlands, a coastline, and oil and natural gas. The latter is the source of all the problems in the region as it has acted to destroy all the others. It is undoubted that revenues from oil and gas are immense. However, they have been explored and exploited to disastrous consequences to both the environment and the indigenous people. Presently, the delta is characterized by destroyed forests, polluted rivers, bare wastelands, reduced fish stocks and polluted air.

This paper will investigate the different environmental problems in the Niger Delta that are as a direct consequence of oil exploitation and exploration and analyze their effects on the natural ecosystems and on the indigenous people. Secondary sources of data were used to conduct this study and the analysis of results was done through the descriptive method. Here, logical deductions were made using abundant present and previous literature and the facts and data are presented in a sequential manner.

The study proved that there is extensive destruction of the environment which has rendered large tracts of land uncultivable, especially areas within gas flaring sites. Additionally, oil spills contributed to destruction of fish stocks and in rendering formerly cultivable land barren. There have been numerous cases of respiratory and other diseases among the indigenous people as a direct consequence of gas flaring and consumption of contaminated water and fish stocks. In extreme situations, oil spills and gas flaring have caused the relocation of entire indigenous populations and loss of ancestral and farm land.

There are many ways in which the destroyed areas can be reclaimed. However, these require concerted efforts from all stakeholders. Rehabilitation takes a lot of time depending on a number of factors including the type of contaminants and soils in the areas of occurrence. These efforts can take even up to fifteen years.

Finally, the government should review its laws, licenses and legislation to ensure that there is more efficient monitoring of oil company activities and make them more accountable to their actions.

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

Oil exploitation and exploration is a major activity in the Niger Delta that has been ongoing for the last six decades. Oil has numerous advantages to a country’s economy. For example, the United States uses oil for 62% of its energy needs and it also accounts for 100% of all the country’s transportation fuels. This evidence alone shows that there are numerous gains to be reaped from oil. However, the Nigerian situation is unique as oil is seen more as a curse in the Niger Delta than a blessing[1]. This region has experienced disastrous effects to its environment which has in turn affected the indigenous communities. The Niger Delta is regarded as one of the “most important wetland and marine ecosystems in the world[2]”. It is the largest wetland in the whole of Africa. Prior to oil exploration and exploitation, it was punctuated by mangrove forests, diverse ecosystems, fresh water swamps, and a rain forest. However, since exploitation of oil began the wetland is now characterized by contaminated streams and rivers, destruction of forests and loss of biodiversity[3].

While the benefits from oil exploitations cannot be overstated especially considering its contribution to the Nigerian economy, the Niger Delta is among the five most petroleum damaged ecosystems in the world. The oil spilt in the Niger Delta in the last 50 years is 50 times more than that of the Exxon Valdez spills that were considered disastrous[4]. There has been severe ecological devastation in the delta that has rendered farming and fishing, the mainstay of the indigenous people, useless. Oil exploitation activities like gas flaring have not only polluted the environment but have conspired to put more misery on the local population by subjecting them to diseases. Gas flaring is a pretty devastating phenomenon in terms of the environment. Compounded with the commonality of oil spills, the future of the delta looks bleak if the situation is not remedied. There are large tracts of formerly productive farmland that have been laid bare due to environmental degradation by multinational oil corporations leaving the local populace desolate[5]. In addition to farming and fishing being severely affected, the local population remains without decent social facilities like roads, schools, hospitals, water and electricity.

The devastation of the Niger Delta has greatly affected the livelihood of indigenous people who largely depend on this ecosystem for their survival. A UNDP report[6] recorded that more than 70 percent of the Niger Delta’s population depends on the natural environment for subsistence. There is estimated to be about 10 million people in the region meaning that close to 7 million look to the delta for their survival[7]. The oil exploration and exploitation activities have done little to improve the livelihoods of indigenous people as they drink dirty and polluted water, sleep in mud houses and have no access to electricity, roads, health services and other essential services. The local communities have depended on agriculture and fishing as their main economic activities for many generations. Their main food sources have been depleted and poisoned by the oil activities in the region without being provided with alternative means of fending for themselves.

Notwithstanding its oil and gas deposits, excellent fisheries, good agricultural land, and a vibrant private sector, the Niger Delta is one of the most backward places in Nigeria. The intake to all school levels for the indigenous population is alarmingly low and is surprisingly lower than for places without any natural resources. Many commentators in the region blame corruption, government laxity and the proliferation of vested interests that divert most of the revenues from oil into private bank accounts. The locals have been completely ignored. Instead of a portion of the revenues being used to develop the basic infrastructure of the delta, it is used to develop far off places. The local youth do not even have priority in the lowly paying jobs that are in abundance in the oil fields. They are left as mere spectators when youth from other areas are shipped into the delta to take up available jobs.

Conflicts between the oil multinationals and locals are common. In most cases, they are as a result of agitation for compensation for damages that occur in the course of exploration and exploitation including oil spills, fires from gas flared, diseases from the numerous toxins and even displacements due to the need for expansion of existing businesses. These dire conditions have pushed the youth to limits that have caused them to retaliate with actions like joining extremist organization all with the aim of highlighting the persecution that is ongoing in the delta.

It has been proven, through numerous research that activities of oil exploration and exploitations are solely responsible for the devastation of the Niger Delta. Specifically, oil spills, gas flaring, and dumping have been the major reasons for the situation in the delta. There are numerous laws that are in place to ensure that multinationals carry on their activities within certain guidelines that are aimed at protecting both the environment and the human population. However, these laws have been ignored due to the corruption that is at the centre of the rot in the Nigerian government. Laws are barely cosmetic as the authorities that are charged with ensuring that they are followed are either powerless or are part of the problem. This paper suggests some recommendations that can help in alleviating the situation including increasing advocacy for the voiceless groups in the delta and for the environment.

Considering all the problems bedeviling the Niger Delta, the objectives of this research are:

To analyze the various environmental problems that have resulted from oil exploration and exploitation with specific scrutiny given to gas flaring, oil spillage and destruction of mangrove and other natural ecosystems
To determine how these activities have impacted the lives of people in the Niger Delta
To sensitize and enlighten relevant communities and authorities within Nigeria on the consequences of the continued destruction of this valuable ecosystem
To provide recommendations which if implemented will reduce the rate of destruction of the ecosystem as well as put measures to ensure that future destruction and degradation is averted.

This paper also captures the level of destruction that has already occurred in the delta. The data provided herein will form a starting point for policy makers to comprehensively plot a course of action in line with the recommendations provided. This study will serve as a template for future research as it touches on two very important aspects: environmental degradation and its attendant effects on the local population.

CHAPTER TWO: Literature review

The German-owned Nigerian Bitumen Corporation is the earliest recorded company to explore oil and gas in the Araromi area in the west of Nigeria, around 1908[8]. The First World War was the hindrance towards further exploration by the company in 1914 paving the way for Shell Petroleum Development Company to continue the work. In 1956, the first oil discovery was made in Oloibiri after half a century of exploration. Actual production started in 1958 when a substantial amount of oil was found and deemed viable for commercial exploitation. Today, the Niger Delta is one of the places that is synonymous with oil in the world. Aworawo documents that Shell Petroleum Development Corporation operates over 31,000 square kilometers (2000).

The Niger Delta is covered with thousands of kilometers of pipeline that are close to homes, water sources and farms (Azaiki, 2003). After initial rights were allocated to Shell British Petroleum in 1958, other companies followed suit in both offshore and onshore drilling. Today, Total, Chevron and Mobil are some of the multinational companies that are involved in the Niger Delta. Oil production was halted between 1967 and 1970 after outbreak of the Nigerian civil war. However, production hit over 308 million barrels in 1970 and as many as over 703 million barrels in 1991. In the 1980s, production had peaked to over 735 million barrels with only 7% of the total being consumed in Nigeria[9]. Whereas oil exploration has occurred in the Niger Delta, the Benin basin, the Chad basin, the Benue trough, and the Anambra basin, and despite incessant civil unrest, poor governance, corruption and political instability, Nigeria has always been considered as the best place for upstream investment by most multinationals. Moreover, only the Niger Delta has had genuine success, compared to other areas where exploration has been done, as it continues to have proven as well as possible oil reserves.

Despite multinationals pumping millions of barrels of crude oil daily from the Niger Delta, and despite it making 80% of Nigeria’s wealth, it is one of the most politically marginalized and backward places in the country. It is ironic that the community around the Niger Delta is very poor and has the most polluted environments. Researchers document that these people live below the subsistence level as they have just a resemblance of basic needs. They drink dirty and polluted water, sleep in mud houses and have no access to electricity (Wariboko, 2009). Fish, which is their staple diet has been diminished by pollution in the rivers. All the revenue accruing from drilling of oil is shared between multinationals and the Nigerian government with almost nothing going to the local population. Many commentators on the Nigerian crisis note that most of the wealth ends up in private bank accounts of corrupt government individuals[10]. They further explain that rampant corruption accounts for the support that the government accords multinationals in instances of conflict between them and the host communities.

A 1995 report by the World Bank noted” that the Niger Delta has been blessed with an abundance of physical and human resources, which include extensive forest cover, a well developed industrial base, the majority of Nigeria’s oil and gas deposits, excellent fisheries, good agricultural land, and a vibrant private sector”[11]. Regardless of all these endowments, the delta is under threat due to deteriorating economic conditions, largely ignored by government actions and policies[12]. In addition to all other problems threatening the livelihood of the communities around it, it has one of the lowest education level indices; way below the national average. While enrollment into primary schools stands at around 76% in Nigeria, the numbers in the Niger Delta are much lower than those of other poorer parts of the country. These figures show that the existence of multinationals does little for the local population and that their main purpose is drilling and sale of crude oil in order to maximize profits.

Bamet and Muller (1974) highlighted the stark differences between global corporations and poor countries. They assert that while the global corporation is driven by the desire for profit maximization, its role is conflicting to the needs, priorities and interests of poor countries and in the end serves to render them even poorer. It is laid bare that oil exploitation and exploration has furthered the woes of indigenous inhabitants of the Niger Delta, leading the youths, largely uneducated and unemployed, to emigrate to cities and towns in such of better opportunities. Monies sourced from the oil in their lands is not used for the betterment of their livelihoods nor their cities but is rather invested in far off cities and towns in infrastructure that does not directly benefit them. Multinationals and the Nigerian government are at fault as they have an obligation to provide clean piped water for the inhabitants of the Niger Delta in addition to roads, health centers and schools in exchange for the crude oil that they receive. Azaiki notes that even where these amenities and services are offered, they further compound the woes of the inhabitants as they are used as tools to further oil exploration and exploitation: for example by construction of access roads to new exploration sites[13].

Akpam posited that it was in Oloibiri in Bayelsa state that oil for commercial exploitation was found and that in 1958 actual drilling started with a peak of 2.3 million barrels (2003). About 31.4% of Africa’s proven oil reserves are found in Nigeria. This accounts for about 2% of the total world reserves. Despite the billions of dollars in revenue that the oil industry has injected into the Nigerian coffers, it is not without negative effects. Numerous surveys from the Niger Delta illustrate a rather gloom picture of the effects of oil exploration and exploitation. Ibaba asserts that the most common problems associated with oil exploitation in the region are: inadequate involvement of the local community in the oil industry which is a source of recurring conflict, inadequate compensation for the local communities from losses either directly or indirectly caused by the oil exploration, human displacement and widespread environmental degradation[14]. Environmental degradation, caused by oil spillages has been singled out as the major variable affecting communities in the delta[15]. Between 1970 and 1990 alone, there were over 2 million barrels of oil spilt in the delta as a result of over 2,796 reported incidents. The impacts from these spillage incidents are as varied as they are devastating. Ibaba notes that:

“Oloibiri is a shadow of its former self. Farming which used to be the mainstay of the community’s economy has been paralyzed as farmlands have been destroyed, fishing activities grounded and aquatic life virtually castrated by many years of oil prospecting and exploration” (2001, 12).

Quite plainly, oil exploitation and exploration has destroyed the environment of the Niger Delta, in turn destroying the livelihood of the indigenous inhabitants without adequate compensation or involvement in the multi-billion dollar industry. There are about 7,000 kilometers of pipeline and flow lines coupled with 275 flow stations that make up the Niger Delta oil network and operated by 13 companies. Although these operations cover only 5% of the total land mass of the delta, the negative environmental consequences of this industry are innumerable and adversely affect the region as a whole[16].

Gas flaring is another source of pollution with over 80% of gas being flared by numerous companies that operate around the country. Okoko states that the open-pipe flare method, which is applied by all the companies, is very damaging to the environment as it has no provision for abetting pollution (1998). Apart from producing high levels of environmental pollutants, the flares are a nuisance to populations living around the delta. A study done at the Izombe flaring site indicates that there is 100% loss in crop yield within 200 meters of the station (Ibaba, 2001). Additionally, around 45% of crop yield loss is experienced within 600 meters of the station and around 10% a kilometer away. Other economic trees like cotton and palm wither away once flaring has been done close to them. On the overall, the oil industry has decimated nearly all the modes of livelihood of inhabitants of the Niger Delta.

The Niger Delta has remained underdeveloped for decades on end despite its contribution to the national wealth. The standards of living of the people have stagnated for an unnaturally long period of time considering the endowments of the region. Many scholars in the region have observed that the underdevelopment is bound to continue as it is closely tied to the oil exploration and exploitation industry as well as to environmental degradation[17]. Underdevelopment indicators include lack of: schools, proper health facilities, clean piped water and employment opportunities. Duru argued that the initiative by Shell British Petroleum to offer these amenities was shambolic as it fostered further exploitation of the community as only access roads between oil and gas fields were constructed (1999).

To indicate that underdevelopment is not a reserve of a particular community within the Niger Delta, Osaghe carried out a study that highlighted the plight of all communities living in the delta (1995). Azaiki went ahead to identify ecological disasters such as environmental pollution caused by oil spillages, flooding, gas flaring resulting in air and water pollution and desecration of wildlife and vegetation as some of the direct causes of the delta’s retardation (2003). The dilemma of the region, being Nigeria’s bread basket, is that since discovery of oil years ago, it seems to be in a time warp where no real development is witnessed outside of towns[18]. The lack of employment opportunities for the youth has driven them to militancy as they attempt to expose their plight to the national and international communities.

Multinationals are involved in intensive public relation campaigns, trying to convince the locals and the world that they are actively involved in development in the region. However, all indications on the ground reflect a different kind of reality, in contrast to what their campaigns depict. Whittington notes that even the employment opportunities for the semi or unskilled laborers are not reserved for communities around the delta but are awarded to people from outside the region. In attempting to expose the dire conditions of the inhabitants of delta, the House of Assembly for the Akwa Ibom launched a protest in 2001 against Mobil Producing Company, which is the largest in the region with a facility in Eket[19]. The World Conference on Environment and Development, 1978, concluded that development and the environment are closely linked together meaning that there can never be development if there is environmental degradation.

Charles Booth developed two definitions of the poor and the very poor. For the latter, he said that they are those “who live in a state of chronic want”, while for the former, he referred to as those that “live in a struggle for enough necessities to make ends meet” (2013). Indicators of poverty are inadequate shelter, unemployment, squalid environment, hunger, low literacy levels, low life expectancies and deficient health services. Experts on poverty define it as complex and all-consuming and that it has no singular way of being approached. There must be multi-dimensional approaches in order to tackle persistent poverty. That Nigeria has been plagued by decades of poverty due to economic crises is not news. There have been massive failures on the part of the post-colonial regimes in driving their well endowed country out of the African curse of poverty. These failures are as a result of missed opportunities during the oil boom when the country would have heavily benefited. Other indicators of the level of poverty in the country are unemployment, runaway inflation, looting of public coffers by government officials, rampant corruption, youth militancy and extremism. There is a unified mismanagement of both the military and civilian-run state resources that together with recessions has compounded Nigeria’s stature as a poor country.

In the midst of all the mismanagement, corruption and poverty in Nigeria, there seems to be no hope for the people of the Niger Delta whose conditions are endemic. They are repeatedly pauperized and impoverished by the gross mismanagement of state resources. One of the major indications of poverty is the constant conflicts between the inhabitants of the delta and multinational oil corporations as their mainstay is disrupted[20]. The traditional economy, largely dependent on fishing and agriculture is under constant threat of complete destruction from pollution of coastal water by oil spills and other activities. Aworawo (2000) states that since the Niger Delta inhabitants are continuously being incapacitated by oil exploration and exploitation activities, they live in very poor health conditions and in a polluted environment, greatly reducing their standards of living[21]. The World Bank laments that apart from the low GNP per capita income, increase in population as well as reduction in habitable land are recipes for a disaster in the Niger Delta[22].

The Niger Delta region is one that is subjected to extreme conditions. As such it is closely linked with poverty meaning that present and future inhabitants are condemned to a life of naught unless there is a major shift in government policy[23]. The fact that all the resources from the delta are used elsewhere leaving inhabitants with nothing tangible except a destroyed environment makes this an interesting area for research. Osuntokun asserts that “many Nigerian cities have been developed with the oil wealth while towns and villages in the Niger Delta have become eyesores” (2000). There are numerous empirical researches done by scholars that conclude that poverty is a serious social as well as economic problem in the Niger Delta. Judging from other cases, for example Venezuela and Saudi Arabia, it is clear that oil exploration and exploitation has impoverished the Niger Delta in stark contrast to the effects it has had in other areas[24]. People in the region, apart from becoming poorer, have become less empowered resulting in them being involved in disruptive practices like militancy in a bid to exposing their plight to those who might listen and help. In this technological age, crude oil is an important cog in development. While it is considered a blessing in other regions in the world, it has subjected people in the Niger Delta to extreme poverty due to gross mismanagement, corruption, greed and selfishness.

CHAPTER THREE: Methodology

The major focus of this study will be on data collected from past studies. These will include both governmental and nongovernmental bodies as well as existing literature from a myriad of scholars. The study relied on secondary data sourced from different organizations including: the World Bank, the Nigerian National Petroleum Cooperation, the United Nations Environmental Protection Programme, National Bureau of Statistics, Amnesty International, International Monetary Fund, seminar and conference reports, journals, books, the internet and published and unpublished materials.

Justification of methodology

The justification for use of secondary data is because it helps to thoroughly investigate different phenomena including politics, economics, history and management from different perspectives. It helps to correlate the divergent views of different researchers and pool them in order to form a concrete base for analyzing a given topic. In this case, this methodology is particularly important as it helps in analyzing a real world occurrence rather than forming decision models. It will assist in understanding the dynamics in the Niger Delta that affect the livelihood of indigenous communities as well as the ecosystems.

Sampling

The paper will detail gas flaring, oil spillage and their attendant effects on the population. This will be analyzed from the perspective of multinational companies as their activities are closely tied to the profits they make. Secondary information from a number of authors about different multinational activities inform the core of this paper with particular attention to gas flaring and oil spillages.

Data analysis

Analysis of the paper will be through the emergent themes. This will be by looking at the most relevant factors relating to complication of life in the Niger Delta. Descriptive method of data analysis is best especially when using secondary methods of data collection as it allows the researcher to organize the research according to plausible themes.

Limitations

This research is limited in the sense that it details the perceptions of other researchers in regards to the situation in the Niger Delta. Secondary information is not as reliable as primary information that may be sourced from participant observation or interviewing players in the industry. Therefore, all information provided will be secondhand and may not reflect actual situations on the ground. There is also a generalization on conduct of multinationals with the assumption that all of them act in the same way. While some may be reckless, others may be responsible; a fact that may not be captured in this research. The analysis method also serves to further cluster behavior of multinationals in broad categories that may not be representative of realities on the ground.

CHAPTER FOUR: Findings and analysis

Gas flaring

According to the Energetic Solution Conference 2004, there are about 123 gas flaring sites in the whole of the Niger Delta. These are responsible for over 45.8 billion kilowatts of heat being released into the atmosphere on a daily basis from gas totaling about 1.8 billion cubic feet. The result is that many areas around these sites are rendered inhabitable for humans, animals and plants. In 2004, there was a burst in the Nigerian Liquefied petroleum Gas pipeline which set ablaze part of the Kala-Akama, Okrika mangrove forest and burnt for three days. There were massive losses incurred as the animal and plant population was engulfed in the blaze[25]. This reflects a trend, as there have been numerous cases of pipeline bursts that have not only consumed plant and animal life but also has caused human fatalities.

Fires are not the only cause of plant and animal population annihilation. Acid rain, which is also as a direct result of gas flaring has caused huge losses. Natural forests and economic crops have been wiped out in the delta leaving only grasses and shrubs. Opukria and Ibaba[26] argued that there could be numerous causes of biodiversity destruction apart from acid rain. They assert that certain agricultural practices and the activities of exploration and exploitation by oil companies have also played a major role. However, Uyigue and Agho[27] observe that there is a high concentration of acid in rain water in the Niger Delta which decreases as one moves further away from the region. The overall effect of gas flaring is that it kills vegetation and prevents some plants from either growing or flowering. Mangrove swamps and salt marshes have been the most affected as soils and water in these places have been degraded and polluted to the point that agricultural productivity is not viable. The table below shows that flaring has a direct relationship with agricultural productivity.

Farmland Distance from Flare site	Loss in Crop Yield
200 meters	100%
600 meters	45%
1 kilometer	10%

Statistics show that Nigeria flares over 75% of the gas produced in the Niger Delta with the rest being consumed locally[28]. The table below shows how Nigeria compares to other countries in that regard.

Country	Country Percentage
USA	0.6
Holland	0.0
Britain	0.3
USSR	1.5
Mexico	5.0
OPEC countries
Nigeria	76.0
Libya	21.0
Saudi Arabia	20
Algeria	19
OPEC Total	18
World Total	4.8

The table above shows that Nigeria has a very high rate of gas flaring. It is way ahead of the world average. The effects of this flaring have not only been adverse to plant and animal life but also to humans. The toxicity of the air around flaring sites has been proven to cause respiratory illnesses, neurological diseases, kidney diseases and even death for people with other preconditions[29]. The government has had numerous efforts to reduce the amounts of gas flared but with little positive results. There are numerous monitoring agencies, augmented by stringent regulations which have largely been ineffective in taming this pollution. Gas flaring is responsible for nitrogenous, carbon and sulfur gases and other particulate matter that collects in shallow ground water and is absorbed by the soil rendering it uncultivable while contributing to global warming.

Effects from oil spills

Organisms greatly vary in their sensitivity to different substances. There are numerous hydrocarbons that are produced as a direct result of the oil exploration and exploitation. In order to assess the specific effects of hydrocarbons on the environment and organisms, it is important to have specific information about that particular environment or organism. This will also require one to have adequate information on the amount of hydrocarbons from oil spills that these components have been exposed to. Analyses of hydrocarbons in this paper have been sourced from studies done on catastrophic oil spills. The effects of these hydrocarbons are dependant on their toxicity in the environment and also the susceptibility of populations, ecosystems and organisms to the doses that have been released. Since the effects of oil spills are rarely directly proportional to the amount of hydrocarbons released, it is prudent to consider the type of hydrocarbon. When certain hydrocarbons are released into the environment, certain processes and organisms alter their chemical composition in turn affecting their toxicity. The resultant physical and chemical properties thus determine the rate at which they are absorbed by the organisms and the overall effect they will have on them. There are various factors that should be considered in determining whether a given hydrocarbon will be fatal to an organism or will alter its physical properties such as rendering it unproductive. They include: hydrocarbon metabolites, the organism’s ability to accumulate and metabolize the hydrocarbon, the persistence and bioavailability of the hydrocarbon and the ability of that hydrocarbon to interphase with the organism.

Hydrocarbons have narcotic effects on nerve transmissions in animals. Their photo-activation and photo-degradation are also important factors in determining their ecological impacts on biological factors. An earlier study by Briggs[30] and others revealed that oil spills have a direct effect on the reproductive rates, physiological impairment and survival of birds and mammals, including humans, when they occur in their habitats. Oil films that occur on the surface of water bodies affect aeration of the water leading to adverse effects on marine and freshwater life. On land, these spills cause soil infertility and retardation in vegetation growth. Ukoli studied the effects of oil spills and noted that their effects are said to be over when total recovery has been realized[31]. He made a summary of pollutants in the oil industry and classified them according to their effects on direct damage to a resource or to their effects on the environment such that it is unable to support a resource.

Production and Exploration results in: Cuttings, Drilling Mud, Suspended Solids, Heavy metals, Oil and Greases, Sulfides, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand COD, Salinity, pH, Turbidity and Temperature[32].
Petroleum refining results in; BOD and COD, Phenol, Sulfide, Hydrocarbons, Suspended solids, Toxic Additives, Cyanide, Total Suspended Solids and Oil & Greases.

However, quantifying recovery may be difficult since studying a small area with valued resources may be more significant than studying a large area without valuable resources. There has been over 4,000 oil spills recorded in the Niger Delta since 1960. There has been a massive loss in mangrove forests since the vegetation has a low tolerance to petrochemicals that are released during these spills. The same effects have been evident in marine life since the oil floats on water affecting aeration and feeding habits. Twumasi and Merem[33] state that there is a direct health risk associated with consumption of contaminated seafood. The overall problems in the Niger Delta, directly resulting from environmental pollution are: biodiversity loss, agricultural land degradation, mangrove degradation, renewable resource degradation, fisheries depletion, oil pollution, land resource degradation, gas flaring and deforestation.

Oil spills in mangroves

There has been a lot of emphasis on the importance of mangrove forests. It is therefore pertinent to address their degradation and pollution in order to understand how they fit into the overall quality of life in the Niger Delta. Mangrove forest damage varies greatly depending on the amount of oil spilled or the toxicity of the pollutant. Therefore, the overall impact to the mangrove forest degradation is a direct result of: the volume of the oil product spilt, the type of oil product, the duration of exposure or the re-oiling period, degree of substrate oiling and the extent to which the oil product covers exposed roots[34]. Heavy oils have the most damaging effect as they eventually lead to death of the mangroves as compared to lighter oils that are acutely toxic. Black mangroves are the most susceptible since they are very crucial in osmoregulation. They pass materials through their roots and vascular systems which eventually exit from the leaf The location of the Niger Delta at the coast does not help matters as it usually experiences occasional climatic changes which aid in the spread of spills or the rate of oil uptake by the black mangroves[35]. Odeyemi and Ogunseitan[36] mapped the area around the mangroves and found that there are numerous mangrove swamps, rainforests and fresh water swamps along the delta. Tolulope[37] observed that the Niger Delta is a source of livelihood for many inland towns and cities since the mangrove forests are the source of tributaries and streams that eventually interlink to form rivers that are an important source of water. Many plant and animal species have been adversely affected by oil exploration and exploitation and many more are at risk of being affected if the current trend goes unabated. Lewis[38] proposed a response stage of oil mangroves that was informed by his many years of study in Florida and Puerto Rico. Lamparelli, et al [39]on the other hand conducted a study on a crude oil spill site in Brazil for nine years. The table below shows the stages of impact and proposed recovery of oiled mangroves according to the above mentioned researchers.

	Stage/Phase	Response
Lewis, 1992	Acute
	0-15 days	Death of birds, turtles, fish, and invertebrates
	10-30 days	Defoliation and death of small (<1m) mangroves; loss of aerial root community
	Chronic
	30 days-1year	Defoliation and death of medium (<3m) mangroves, tissues damage to aerial roots
	1-5 years	Death of larger (>3m) mangroves; loss of oiled aerial roots and re-growth of new ones (sometimes deformed); re-colonization of oiled damaged areas by new seedlings
	1-10 years	Reduction in litter fall, reduces reproduction, and reduced survival of seedlings; death or reduced growth of young trees colonizing oiled sites. Increased insect damage.
	10-15 years	Complete recovery
Lamparelli et al, 1997	Initial Effect
	0-1 year	Seedling and saplings die; no structural alterations can be measured.
	Structural damage
	1-4 years	High motility is observed, and the oil impact can be measured in terms of major structural alterations
	Stabilization
	4-9 years	No or few additional alterations to the structural parameters; sapling growth is observed
	Recovery
	> 9 years	It is possible to measure improvements in the structural treeparameters; ecosystem may not recover fully to its original state

Wetlands have the natural ability to break down pollutants and then assimilate them. This is a very important factor as it affects the recovery of the damaged areas in the Niger Delta. The remaining forests in the region are very important since they serve to regulate both the area’s micro and macro climates. There are canopies that grow within water catchment areas that are crucial in avoiding soil erosion by stabilizing the soil and maintaining the natural hydrological cycles[40]. Continued deforestation and clearance of vegetation cover has had many adverse effects including adding silt to the marine ecosystem, decreasing the quality of fresh water available and making the water table saline. Other functions that these vegetation play include repelling insects and providing herbs that have numerous medicinal value to humans. There are also many other industries that rely on the mangrove forests for their survival including manufacture of ink, starch, fibers and gums.

Effects on human beings

An ecosystem is usually dependant on all its constituent parts in order to survive. Human beings are an important part of the Niger Delta’s wider ecosystem. As such, they are affected by the negative impacts of gas flaring, hydrocarbons and mangrove destruction. Indigenous people are affected by oil spills since they occur at a certain point and spread over a wide area. In the past, oil spills have necessitated the relocation of the indigenous communities. Others; have completely lost their ancestral homes, have no access to fresh water, have lost agricultural and forest land, have had there fishing grounds destroyed leading to reduction in fish stocks, and others have lost their means of livelihood. There are massive, yet unquantifiable losses that have been incurred by the local population in the Niger Delta. Furthermore, continued pollution has exposed the communities to a new set of diseases to compound those they were predisposed to due to their dismal living conditions. Twumasi and Merem[41] conducted a study of the Niger Delta forest between 1985 and 2005 that showed a decline in water bodies, mangroves and close forests and with an increase in bare land, settlements and mixed, man-made forests. The table below illustrates the conclusion of that study.

Classes	Area (ha) in 1985	Area (ha) in 2000	% Change (1985-2000)
Water	343,654	343,513	-0.04
Crop land	16,495	23,974	45.34
Settlement/bare areas	52,738	108,725	106.16
Mangrove	55,410	37,117	-33.01
Closed forest	250,161	175,609	-29.80
Mixed forest	162,916	192,436	18.12

CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusion

The first objective for this research was:

To analyze the various environmental problems that have resulted from oil exploration and exploitation with specific scrutiny given to gas flaring, oil spillage and destruction of mangrove and other natural ecosystems

From the literature above and the data collected there has been massive destruction of farmlands, mangrove forests, sources of clean drinking water, fishing grounds and the overall decline in fish populations, mollusks, birds, crabs and periwinkles. Marine and terrestrial ecosystems have been destroyed resulting in derelict lands that are not fit for supporting large numbers of species. There have been numerous problems that are associated with oil spills. Experts have cautioned that oil spilt is a very persistent problem because unless properly cleaned up, there will be no recovery of the natural environment. Furthermore, even with remediation of areas covered with oil, it takes over 15 years for them to be fully recovered. This period is also dependent on the geology of the area in question, the type of oil spilt, the type of soil in the area, the type of cleanup method applied and the type of natural vegetation formerly present. Due to major oil spills in the 1990s that were not properly cleaned up in Ogoniland, subsequent oil spills have rendered it a wasteland. The government has not been very keen to clean up these areas in the past. However, recent efforts, in collaboration with UNEP have given hope to the communities.

The second objective for this research was:

To determine how these activities have impacted the lives of people in the Niger Delta

There are many negative effects that have resulted from oil exploration and exploitation in the Niger Delta. The problem however is that the government and the oil companies have neither been proactive nor reactive to the problems. There are some occurrences that can be dealt with so that they do not cause extensive damage to the environment. For example, after an oil spill, the culprits should be forced to clean up and follow up in the remediation of the areas that the spills have occurred. There needs to be investment in preventative measures to ensure that there are reduced incidences and accidents. Nigerian oil exploration and exploitation is not a unique phenomenon. There are countries in the world with larger oil and natural gas deposits, and who supply more to the international market. However, these countries have very stringent measures against environmental degradation. The cases occurring in the Niger Delta are too common and too grave and can only be as a result of negligence. One of the objectives of this paper was to determine how oil exploration and exploitation has impacted the lives of people in the Niger Delta. Apart from being entirely displaced, some have completely lost their ancestral homes, have no access to fresh water, have lost agricultural and forest land, have had there fishing grounds destroyed leading to reduction in fish stocks, and others have lost their means of livelihood. This is in addition to exposure to diseases due to dangerous hydrocarbons in the air, acid rain and from consumption of contaminated fish stocks and plants due to oil spillages.

The third objective for this research was:

To sensitize and enlighten relevant communities and authorities within Nigeria on the consequences of the continued destruction of this valuable ecosystem

There is no serious investment in manpower, equipment, agencies, revenue and terrain that can effectively monitor oil exploration and exploitation activities. The findings in the paper serve to sensitize and enlighten relevant communities and authorities within Nigeria on the consequences of the continued destruction of this valuable ecosystem. The government has been crippled in its efforts in combating wanton destruction of the environment in the delta due to limited information on the extent to which oil exploration and exploitation affects the ecosystem and the people. There has been much blame laid on the oil companies by environmentalists and the communities affected by these activities. However, the Federal Government is also at fault since it has the prerogative to provide laws, licenses and legislation that must be adhered to by these companies. There is already some improvement in the way that the Niger Delta situation is being handled[42]. Organizations like NDDC, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), United Nations (UN), NOSDRA, Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) and SPDC have started intensive campaigns to try and remediate as much of the delta as possible and also tame oil companies in their day-to-day activities. The government should avail sufficient funding to ensure that the exploration and exploitation of oil and natural gas is sustainable in the Niger Delta.

The fourth objective for this research was:

To provide recommendations which if implemented will reduce the rate of destruction of the ecosystem as well as put measures to ensure that future destruction and degradation is averted.

The recommendations are outlined in the next chapter

CHAPTER SIX: Recommendations

The Nigerian government is tasked with the biggest responsibility to ensure that the activities of oil exploration and exploitation are done in a sustainable manner. Here are several recommendations which if implemented can reduce the rate of destruction of the ecosystem as well as put measures to ensure that future destruction and degradation is averted.

The government should revise its laws, regulation and legislation. It is clear that the laws and regulations that oversee the activities of oil companies are outdated. This is because there is too much negligence and impunity in the actions of these companies. While crafting new laws, the government should review the licenses of all the operators in the region to ensure that they meet the minimum requirements for running a safe business for workers, the environment and for the community. Non-adherence to the laws should be met by hefty fines or loss of license. This will streamline the activities of oil companies making them more responsible in their operations.
There should be emphasis on environmentally friendly technologies that would reduce degradation. Activities like gas flaring are done on a very large scale in the delta which causes very destructive effects to the environment and additionally contributes to global warming. These gases can be converted into alcohol which is a potent source of energy or can be converted into other energy sources for use in the country. The government should set a cap on the amount of gas that should be flared so that companies are stimulated to invest in technology that will assist them adhere to these caps.
There should be a concerted effort by both the government and oil companies to rehabilitate the areas that have already been affected by activities of exploration and exploitation of oil. These efforts can be in the form of availing funding so that nongovernmental organizations or other qualified organizations can rehabilitate these areas over the long term.
The government should set up environmental research and management centers around the delta. This will ensure that the environment is not being degraded at a high rate and the degraded areas are restored to productivity. The centers should also be charged with developing new ways of operating to ensure that companies minimize accidents and incidents.
The government should ensure that Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) are conducted periodically to assess the efforts of continued oil exploration and exploitation.
There should be intense campaigns to sensitize the local communities on the importance of the environment. This will equip them with the necessary knowledge to conserve the environment as well as report any wrongdoings by the oil companies. As stated above, most of the statistics on oil spills are dependent on what is reported by the oil companies themselves. Naturally, they do not report the actual figures and therefore, the conditions may be worse than the government and other organizations envisage. Creating awareness in the local population will ensure that any incidents and accidents that affect the environment are reported.
The government should set aside a percentage of the revenue generated from oil activities in the Niger Delta to grow the local community. There should be two distinct set of revenues. One should be centered on the environment, in matters of rehabilitation and conservation, while the other should be to compensate those affected by the activities of exploration and exploitation. For example, many people have respiratory diseases caused by activities of gas flaring. Apart from compensating these people, they should ensure that they have clean water, electricity and better social amenities including schools, roads and health centers.

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[1] O. Tom, Curse of the Black Gold: Hope and Betrayal in the Niger Delta, Journal of National Geographic Society, 211/2 (2007)

[2] Ibid, 4

[3] K.S.A. Ebeku . Oil and the Niger Delta People in International Law. Resource Rights, Environmental and Equity Issues, Oil, Gas & Energy Law Intelligence (OGEL). Special Study Vol. 5, (2005)

[4] Federal Ministry of Environment Abuja, Nigerian Conservation Foundation Lagos, WWF UK and CEESP-IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic, and Social Policy, May 31,(2006). Niger Delta Resource Damage Assessment and Restoration Project.

[5] N. Zabbey. Impacts of extractive industries on the biodiversity of the Niger Delta region, Nigeria. Paper presented at National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management, (Calabar, Cross-River State, 2004).

[6] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Niger Delta Human Development Report (Abuja, Nigeria, 2006), 185,186

[7] Guardian. The 1998 Nigerian Budget. The Guardian, 5 July, (2001).

[8] S. Azaiki, Inequities in Nigerian Politics (Yenagoa: Treasure Communications Resource Limited, 2003)

[9] S. Azaiki, Inequities in Nigerian Politics (Yenagoa: Treasure Communications Resource Limited, 2003)

[10] Joseph C. Ebegbulem, Dickson Ekpe and Theophilus Oyime Adejumo, Oil Exploration and Poverty in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: A Critical Analysis, International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4/3 (2013)

[11] Joseph C. Ebegbulem, Dickson Ekpe and Theophilus Oyime Adejumo, Oil Exploration and Poverty in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: A Critical Analysis, International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4/3 (2013)

[12] P.S. Torulagha. The Niger Delta Oil and Western Strategic Interests: The Need for Understanding. (http ://unitedijawstates.com, 2007)

[13] S. Azaiki, Inequities in Nigerian Politics (Yenagoa: Treasure Communications Resource Limited, 2003)

[14] Ibid

[15] Bisma, J. Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta. (Unpublished, 2006)

[16] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Niger Delta Human Development Report (Abuja, Nigeria, 2006), 185,186

[17] Joseph C. Ebegbulem, Dickson Ekpe and Theophilus Oyime Adejumo, Oil Exploration and Poverty in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: A Critical Analysis, International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4/3 (2013)

[18] P.C. Nwilo and O.T. Badejo. Oil spill problems and management in the Niger Delta. Paper presented at International Oil Spill Conference, Miami, Florida, USA, (2005).

[19] A. Dokubo, Niger Delta People in the Nigerian State, The Argus, 3/61 (2004), pp. 4

[20] S.N. Okiwelu and D.I. Anyanwu. Dictionary of Ecology, Conservation and Environmental Sciences. (Lagos: Niyi Faniran, 2003).

[21] Gbadegesin, A. The Impact of Oil Exploration and Petroleum Activities on the Environment: Implications/or Peasant Agriculture. (Ibadan: Macmillan Press, 2008).

[22] A. Oshineye. The petroleum industry in Nigeria: an overview. Modern practice. Journal of Finance and Investment Law, 4/4 (2000), 2134–2139.

[23] J. Wiki. Poverty in the Niger Delta. (Port Harcourt: Jurat Publication Company, 2009).

[24] S.I. Omofonmwan and L.O. Odia. Oil Exploitation and Conflict in the Niger-Delta Region of Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology 26/1 (2009): 25 – 30

[25] Z. Nenibarini, Impacts of Extractive Industries on the Biodiversity of the Niger Delta (National Workshop on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management, 2004).

[26] O. Opukri and I.S. Ibaba, Oil Induced Environmental Degradation and Internal Population Displacement in the Nigeria’s Niger Delta. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 10/1 (2008)

[27] E. Uyigue and M. Agho, Coping with Climate Change and Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta of Southern Nigeria (Community Research and Development Centre Nigeria, 2007)

[28] M.K. Ukoli, Environmental Factors in the Management of the Oil and Gas Industry in Nigeria, (2005), <www.cenbank.org>, accessed 22 November 2013

[29] A.L. Ndubuisi and I.O. Asia, Environmental Pollution in Oil Producing Areas of the Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria: Empirical Assessment of Trends and People’s Perception, Environmental Research Journal, 1/1-4 (2007), 18-26

[30] K.T. Briggs S.H. Yoshida and M.E. Gershwin, The Influence of Petrochemicals and Stress on the Immune System of Seabirds, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 23 (1996), 145-155.

[31] M.K. Ukoli, Environmental Factors in the Management of the Oil and Gas Industry in Nigeria, (2005), <www.cenbank.org>, accessed 22 November 2013

[32] L.C. Osuji. Post impact assessment of oil pollution in Agbada west plain of Niger Delta, Nigeria: field reconnaissance and total extractable hydrocarbon content. Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Management, 5/35 (2001), 1569–1578.

[33] Y. Twumasi and E. Merem, GIS and Remote Sensing Applications in the Assessment of Change within a Coastal Environment in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, International Journal of Environmental Research & Public Health, 3/1(2006), 98-106

[34] National Research Council (NRC), Oil in the Sea 3: Inputs, Fates, and Effects (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2003).

[35] E. Uyigue and M. Agho, Coping with Climate Change and Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta of Southern Nigeria (Community Research and Development Centre Nigeria, 2007)

[36] O. Odeyemi and O.A Ogunseitan, Petroleum Industry and its Pollution Potential in Nigeria. Oil & Petroleum Pollution, 2 (1985), 223-229, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England. 0143-7127/85.

[37] A.O. Tolulope, Oil Exploration and Environmental Degradation: the Nigerian Experience. International Information Archives, 2 (2004), 387-393, International Society for Environmental Information Science

[38] R.R. Lewis, Coastal habitat restoration as a fishery management tool. In R.H. Stroud, ed., Stemming the Tide of Coastal Fish Habitat Loss (Savannah: National Coalition for Marine Conservation, Inc., 1992), 169-173

[39] Lamparelli, C.C., Rodeigues, F.O. and Orgler de Moura, D., Long-term Assessment of an Oil Spill in a Mangrove Forest in Sao Paulo, Brazil. In: Kjerfve, B., Drude de Lacerda, L., and Salif Diop, W. H. [eds.], Mangrove Ecosystem Studies in Latin America and Africa (Paris, France: UNESCO, 1997) pp. 191-203.

[40] C. Chinweze and G. Abiol-oloke, Women Issues, Poverty and Social Challenges of Climate Changes in the Nigerian Niger Delta Context. 7^th International Conference on the Human Dimension of Global Environmental Changes (Bonne, Germany: UN Campus, 2009).

[41] Y. Twumasi and E. Merem, GIS and Remote Sensing Applications in the Assessment of Change within a Coastal Environment in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, International Journal of Environmental Research & Public Health, 3/1(2006), 98-106

[42] J. McLennan and S.W. James, Deep Water Africa reaches turning point, Oil and Gas Journal, 103/6 (2005)

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