Social Behaviour
Social behaviour is characterised with a manner of acting towards a particular society or the manner of acting in members of an identical species. Surveys argue that social behaviour is a form of communication that trigger change in behaviour or provokes a response on the part of the receiver. Communication in diverse species is not considered as a social behaviour. Social behaviour is characterised with behavioural disturbance on members of one species. Social actions are designed in a manner that they trigger actions, which is part of social relation and social interaction through communications. This paper engages cognitive neuroscience technique in understanding social behaviour.
Cognitive neuroscience technique focuses on cognition and social behaviour. It is argued that social behaviour in animals is complex since it is affected by biological aspects and evolution aspects (Drea & Wallen, 1999). Comprehending neuro mechanisms calls for a clear understanding of diverse variables that affect animals. Cognitive neuroscience techniques are influential in providing clear concepts relating to neural basis, which are part of the cognitive process. Vision is part of cognitive processes, which are commonly applied in simple cognitive processes. There are higher levels of cognitive processes which are complex.
There are a number of methodological questions that are addressed in cognitive neuroscience technique. The first variable identifies with modalities of measuring social behaviour, the second variable identifies with methods of categorising stimuli, the third variable identify with the best method to be engaged in using the data so that a sound guide theory is adapted. The fifth variable is concerned with the best way of interpreting data and the final variable is concerned with the generalisation of the results and establishing the reliability of the results (Easton, 2005).
There are a number of theoretical questions to be addressed while using cognitive neuroscience technique. Issues to be addressed are pegged on the extent of theoretical, choice of proprietary vocabulary or existing vocabulary, connectedness to non social cognitive processes, future connection to social cognitive neuroscience and on the level of integration of social cognitive neuroscience to other components in the investigation (Bachevalier & Meunier, 2005).
Reflecting on neural substrates affecting the monkey’s social behaviour, it was noted that Kluver-Bucy syndrome was a result of bilateral lesions in the amygdala; the syndrome was common with hyper sexuality, hyperphagia, docility and hyperorality (Emery et al., 2001). Docility was characterised with fear responses based on low aggressiveness, it is also referred to as tameness or placidity. Hyperphagia was characterised by dietary changes where monkeys overate or ate objects that were inappropriate (Call & Tomasello, 2001). Hyperorality was characterised with examining diverse objects through mouth. Hyper sexuality was characterised by high sexual stimulation with objects that were unusual. Visual agnosia is characterised by poor ability of recognising people and objects that are familiar.
In monkeys, Kluver investigated on the rhesus factors in monkeys in the 1930s (Malkova et al., 1997). The investigation focused at the mescaline, Kluver had temporal lobes to be investigated (Apperly et al., 2004). The lobes had been removed by Bucy, who was a neurosurgeon. In the Kluver-Bucy experiment, it was noted that monkeys had normal motor skills and vision, although displayed some elements of psychic blindness. It is said that the monkeys did not recognise the importance attached to different events (Call & Tomasello, 2001).
The monkeys at the same time showed no fear of items that frightened other monkeys. The monkeys also had an appetite for foods that were improper such as rocks. The monkeys also desired sexual partners that were unusual, where some of the partners were from different species. The monkeys were placid on approach and explored the immediate environment. The findings justified earlier research carried out by researchers.
The same Kluver-Bucy syndrome was documented in human beings after people were subjected to tumours or accidents that affected the human being among other causes. It was argued that the development of Kluver-Bucy syndrome was influenced by Rhinal cortex, Hippocampus, Parahippocampal cortex and Amygdala (Amaral et al., 2003). It was noted that the large lesions in monkeys that are located in the temporal lobe were responsible for food choices that were abnormal, while reflecting on the food rewards that were desirable (Emery et al., 2001). It was argued that the effects were as a result of amygdala where bilateral lesions had an influence. Functioning of the amygdala was influenced by cortex (Baxter et al., 2000).
It was argued that Hyperprarity was part of the Kluver-Bucy syndrome, other effects were loss of fear, which was also part of the Kluver-Bucy syndrome, other effects were characterised with sexual behaviours that were odd, where animals had desires of performing sexual acts with other animals of different species. If some tissues in amygdala were removed, some animals showed significant changes in the social hierarchy (Drea & Wallen, 1999).
Reflecting on surgical performed on a monkey, it was noted that the monkeys showed diverse characteristics that changed after the surgery, before the surgery was performed, it was noted that the monkeys displayed dominance, self assurance, aggressiveness which led to attacks, aggressiveness which led to being active, placidicity, alertness, noisy and submissiveness among other traits (Call & Tomasello, 2001). It was noted that after the monkeys underwent surgery, it affected the social hierarchy of the animals in the community they lived in, the animals became unpredictably aggressive, more dominant, vicious and on the attribute of being an outcast.
The research proved that amygdala was vital since it influenced the social hierarchy in animals. Major connections and divisions of amygdala identified with lateral nucleus that affected the sensory cortex and the sensory thalamus; basolateral nucleus influenced the ventral striatum, Dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus, hippocampal formation, central nucleus, hypothalamus, medulla, midbrain and pons and Basal nucleus affected the Periaqueductal gray matter (Baxter et al., 2000). Medial nucleus was responsible for the Medial basal forebrain and the hypothalamus and the accessory and main olfactory bulb.
It was argued that Sensory cortex was responsible for the visual information characterised with facial expressions, faces, body movements, gaze direction, vocal sounds and auditory information. It was also noted that Dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus and Hippocampal formation were responsible for the memory (Lieberman et al., 2001). Further surveys indicated that the Ventral striatum was responsible for the input directed at the voluntary motor system. It was also noted that Hypothalamus, pons, midbrain and medulla were responsible for the endocrinological and autonomic responses to emotions (Bachevalier & Meunier, 2005). Basal nucleus is responsible for the modulation of cortical processing and also responsible for the cortical stimuli that are attached to diverse stages.
Surveys indicated that aspiration lesions are not attached to damaging amygdala, since amygdala is located deeply within medial temporal lobe (Amaral et al., 2003). It has been noted that removing Aspiration lesions had high possibilities of damaging white matter fibres and cortex, which are located within the region (Meunier & Bachevalier et al., 1999). Research encourages excitotoxins as an alternative model of dealing with the issue. It was also noted that amygdala is critical in the learning processes, particularly directed at rewards. This is more on reward-object association learning. The association showed significant and mild impairment (Easton & Gaffan, 2002).
Reward learning can be facilitated by diverse modalities, it was noted that secondary reinforce engaged was attached to tones. It was noted that animals showed different character traits while reflecting on correct tones and incorrect tones. Correct tone resulted to correct action with incorrect tone resulting to incorrect action. It was argued that food rewards were connected to diverse responses. Research supported the arguments that amygdala was critical in learning, particularly with the normal secondary reinforcement (Easton, 2004). Monkeys learn to associate sounds with objects, impairment was noted with aspiration amygdala lesion (Meunier & Bachevalier et al., 1999).
It is argued that neurotoxic lesions had an effect on amygdala, surveys indicated that aspiration lesions resulted in damaging of the fibres located in the region (Emery et al., 2001). Neurotoxin on the other hand destroy the cell bodies which are located in the amygdala, but to some extent do not harm the fibres. It is argued that amygdala is not involved in secondary reinforcement learning; the arguments are pegged on tests done on Neurotoxic lesions (Amaral et al., 2003). The impairment is likely to have been caused by the destruction of the fibres, which resulted to impairment.
It is argued that amygdala lesions are related to the social behaviours, surveys indicated that comparisons between neurotoxic and aspiration lesions showed minimised direct comparison in monkeys (Easton, 2005). Limited number of neurotoxic lesions were involved in social behaviours in monkeys, it was concluded that amygdala is critical although the impairments remotely severe as compared to aspiration lesions. Monkeys showed different reactions when they were exposed to unfamiliar faces and toy snakes among others.
Research supported that amygdala was responsible to social behaviours in animals; amygdala works in connection with other parts. Reflecting on surveys conducted on Phineas Gage, it was noted that an iron went through the skull, where the iron damaged vmPFC. It was noted that before the accident, the person was polite and mild tempered; after the accident, the person became aggressive and rude, the personality of the individual changed after losing a family and job. It is argued that frontal lesions in monkeys affected the social bonds among the animals (Ramachandran, 1995).
It was noted that amygdala affected normal social behaviour, where the monkey lesions affected the social behaviours of the monkeys (Emery et al., 2001). It was also noted that infant lesions had larger effects on the social behaviours of the monkeys. Frontal lesions were also noted to have an influence on the social behaviours of the monkeys. Amygdala and OFC have different functions although they interact to come up with diverse social behaviours. Involvement of anterior cingulated and temperopolar cortex was also critical in defining the social behaviours of animals (Baxter et al., 2000).
Context connects actions to the behaviours of animals, it is argued that context is learned with time and forms a critical part of memories (Easton, 2004). Context defines the correct behaviours and also other variables. In the same model, social context influences the behaviours of animals. Social situations define the model of acting, which is different as to when an individual or an animal is faced with similar circumstances privately (Drea & Wallen, 1999). Animals show different responses when approached by different stimulus and social contexts. The environment is ever changing; behavioural flexibility enables animals to adapt to the changing environment. Behavioural flexibility in most time happens unconsciously and it is highly adaptable (Lane et al., 1997). Surveys conducted on primates, it was noted that the animals are motivated by different things.
It is argued that behavioural flexibility is critical in social behaviours that are considered normal, which is studied in animals and also happens in human beings. Frontal cortex has been connected with behavioural flexibility (Baxter et al., 2000). Self is critical in social cognitive neuroscience techniques. Self is addressed in connection with self knowledge, self awareness and self control (Lieberman & Pfeifer, 2005). Normal social behaviour is shaped by understanding others, which is connected to understanding self; it is argued that the frontal cortex is critical in understanding self, which is connected to the cognitive neuroscience approaches (Baxter et al., 2000).
Surveys indicated that autism is a condition related with amygdala. Autism is said to be social development that is abnormal where the individuals show communication abilities that are impaired characterised with obsession interests that are very strong. It is argued that autism is part of impairment on the part of social cognition. Surveys indicated that autism is not directly connected to amygdala. Feelings of moral are connected to what is good, while immoral actions are connected to what is wrong (Moll et al., 2002). Unipolar depression is characterised with dysphoria, feelings of guilt, worthlessness, diminished, thoughts of suicide, fatigue, change in weight and agitation among other feelings (Easton, 2004).
Cognitive neuroscience has been influential in understanding ways in which human mind supports perception, thoughts, actions, affection, social processes and cognitive behaviours. It has been noted that mind changes and develops with time. Cognitive neuroscience connects cognition, brain and behaviours (Lieberman & Pfeifer, 2005). The challenge of engaging Cognitive neuroscience is attached to data validity and modalities of gathering data.
Cognitive neuroscience techniques provide critical insights that are ignored by other techniques. An example of the critical insights, identify with self knowledge among others. Cognitive neuroscience technique is critical in defining diverse systems that are related to social cognition such as depression, decision making, emotional cognitions, interests, motivations and social relationships among others. Cognitive neuroscience has been critical in cognitive psychology and also in areas of brain sciences, where patterns of behavioural damages are considered after brain injuries, neural circuits and measurements related to activities of the brain in cognitive tasks.
References
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