Question 1: What is Institutional Racism?

Institution racism refers to education economic, social and political set ups forces and policies that are intentional or unintentional acts, based on race, skin color, or cultures targeting discrimination and subordination of an person or an entity. Institution racism occurs in organizations where resources distribution, power and opportunities are for the benefit of a particular group of people or category based on cultures, skin color or race.  This type of racism has hierarchical structures where it is enacted through policies and frameworks by individuals and institutions keep them in force (Andersen & Collins, 2009). The origin of racism in United States can be traced back in the era of slavery, settlement, and American Indians schools segregations. This racism distinguish its self from other racism in that policies and practices within organizations are utilized to disadvantage selected race, ethnic groups or less privileged individuals. It is believed that institution racism can only exist to institution where power to control and enforce policies and practices are manifested to a single category of people. For example, whites given power and authority to enforce and enact policies and practices segregating other races or skin colors.

1. Define fully political Racism

Racism accounts all discrimination and prejudice practices to an individual based on the race or the skin color. Political racism is discussed by various scholars and policy makers as the attempt to discriminate individuals due to intergroup attitudes, political ideologies and politics issues. Like institutional racism, this type is more of political ideology in the field of social policies and democracy. Politics racism usually occur when an individual or a group of performs are discriminated politically due to color, race, cultures or racial ideologies. Political racism exists in conservative politics that are associated to policies opposing affirmative actions and conservative values and attitudes. For example, in United States, blacks voted for Obama given that he is black. In the same way, political racism is practiced when individuals are affiliated to a political party based on the race or the skin color leaders (Wise, 2005).

2. Define Economic Racism

According to business dictionary economic discrimination can be described as the application of labor markets discrimination, paying workers differently based on the race, color skin, or culture groups. In this regard, in the labor market or economic set up, individuals are treated unfairly, biased, and denied equally opportunities as regards to recruitment, selection, promotion or even transfers in the organization. Discrimination is this category is practiced on the grounds of sex/gender, religion, culture, and race or on political support and belief. For example, in countries such as America and Germany blacks and minority communities have discriminated years on economic grounds. It is commonly argued that most developed countries single most damaging factor is the prolonged effects within black and minority groups due to economic racism. Concisely, economic racism refers to discrimination and isolation of individuals of particular culture, race, color skin, or language on economic factors (Andersen & Collins, 2009).

3. Define Housing racism

This is discrimination that exists in the sale, purchase or renting of houses where qualified individuals are isolated or denied opportunity to ownership because of sex, religion, ethnic background or race and skin color.

4. Define legal racism

Legal racism refers to prejudice practices most prevalent in the legal systems particularly courts to give judgment based on race, or the skin color of the accused. In addition, legal policies and enforcements are formulated and applied in institutions or economic set-ups intentional or unintentional to discriminate particular group or section of individuals towards action or legal procedures (Wise, 2005).

5. Define educational racism

Education racism is a developed set of attitudes and behaviors that include superiority of one group and inferiority of another group in the education systems. Usually education system plays a crucial role in combating and eradicating the vice of racism. For example in many instances of  educational racism, children have the believe that certain group of people are better than others or certain race, skin or ethnic are superior than others. Education racism is much connected to apartheid systems where certain races or skin colors are supposed to join certain schools and other minority or school join a different school.

6. Define cultural racism

Today, globalised institutions and economies have developed a globalized culture. Cultural racism is one of various terms business and economic experts have coined to refer to racial ideology and practices that emerged due to globalization.  Other forms of racisms have much been buried and new racism replaced them. Culture racism is actually discrimination or isolation to opportunity or resources based on the cultural background of an individual. In this respect, individuals are denied opportunities through affirmative actions and other resources in the globalised world due to the cultures of origin (Wise, 2005).

7. Define medical racism

Medical racism is a medical malpractice prevalent in the health institution and community based health care. In this racism concept, health experts fail to adhere to the principle of equality or health care to all and discriminate attendance based on race, skin color or the ethnicity (Washington, 2008).  Also, the vice exist where scientist exploit others based on color or race

Question 2: what is the difference between prejudice and racism? Explain the anatomy of racism.

Prejudice is a negative reflection of assimilated power, which segregates individuals instead of connecting them. It consists of general preconceptions regarding a scenario a thing or an individual and often results due to racism. It is often taken to be pathological and originate from authoritarian personality, which often discriminate minority groups or the socially disadvantaged ones. Prejudice manifest as a part of social interactions, which enables individuals to become aware of the existence of their fellows in the society and most importantly aid in societal intermingling. Prejudice is a disintegrative power, which is attained via hatred, terror, and intimidation of an ordinary rival. The negative identity of a give group of people results to violence due to negative stereotyping, which results on its discrimination, based on the negative stereotypes. Prejudice has been explained as having categorical thoughts, which is often viewed as a normal trait due to normal prejudgments as a result of unavoidable orderly manner of thinking (Andersen & Collins, 2009).

Other studies reveal that prejudiced results from a favorite of a group in which a person belongs rather than on negative attitudes towards others. It may arise due to adoring, sympathizing and trusting one’s group. Prejudice results as one finds unusual or weird traits in other groups. Racism is an example of prejudice and may also result as a result of gender, ethnicity, socio-economic situations, and sexual orientation or due to religious affiliation.  Prejudice due to racism is apparent in the society. Racism is a set of beliefs which ascertains the existence of race and those racial traits causes superiority of inferiority of particular races. When individual are separated according to their race they are treated differently due to their genetic composition. Physical traits and cultural traits make one to identify or group others according to race where some people may fail to fit in the group they are designated, which creates an illusion of what a race is.

Racism can also be defined as a doctrine which infers that an individual is born with moral and social characteristics in relation to race. The history of man has been dominated by racism which has marginalized individuals according to skin color, their cultural values, nationality, and language among other features.  Racism is the basis by which there has been establishment of war and violence, slavery, nation’s formations as well as formation of legal codes. The issue of slavery is the most known reflection of racism, which oppressed the black and considered them as less human and therefore worth to be properties to labor for the superior race as the whites.  Racial prejudice is infectious and has been termed as a global problem. Its diagnosis is achieved through evaluations of certain manifestations such as terror, intolerance, division, isolation, bias and hatred. The manifestations clearly results from ignorance.

Racism on the other hand can be perceived as a doctrine in which inborn biological differences exist for human race. It dictates cultural or sole attainments with the notion that individual race is superior and should lead other races. Racism has also been taken to mean exulting the race in which one belongs while discriminating other races in which one stereotypes, prefers, fear or as a result of nationalism. Racism has been applied to explain social discrimination, racial prejudice, marginalization and certain occurrence of violence.  A racist is an individual who upholds racism. Racism may historically have been enhanced as the Portuguese explored the African continent and developed their own cities while taking the natives to be their rivals. Africans could not cope with their level of technology and were subdued by the western civilizations enslaving them and considering them as being from different savages. Slave trade enhanced as blacks sold their fellows depicting savagery. This facilitated attitudes towards slavery considering blacks as subhuman thus inferior.

A group of persons with distinguishable biological traits is called a race. All humans are Homo sapiens but have been distinct due to hair and skin color or texture, the color or shape of the eyes, limbs and organ size as well as the facial shape and appearances. However, it has been scientifically proven that the differences are only physical asserting that Homo sapiens have similar traits than are the differences. However, people have continuously perceived others with respect to their superficial traits. Humans physically differ only in their appearance. However if the pathology manifestations are evident, the result is usually demeaning. The anatomical or taxonomical differences have continued to make life diverse and therefore interesting. Besides, they award people with unique features, which can be blended with those of another to come up with even more interesting being. However, the unique traits have been perverted through racial prejudice, which segregate people into groups considering them inferior while themselves as superior. These preconceived suspicions towards a race consider some as inherently superior i.e. their physical, intellectual and cultural aspects while others as inferior and should be rightly been dominated. As a result, tension, conflict and violence arise due to denial of civil rights and privilege to engage politically economically and socially. Today racial profiling is common in the U.S as well as aspects of affirmative action, discrimination and inequality which have risen with the globalization process as foreign labor is imported and exported and limitations through immigration policies (Wise, 2005). Racism is not only discriminative but also exploiting manifested through various institutions. It is accustomed by economic imperatives and conferred by cultural, religious, literal, artistic, scientific and media aspects.

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Introduction

Yosemite National Park is America’s most elegant natural wonders and it has something to offer every hardcore outdoors enthusiasts to the ordinary travelers who like family vacation. The park lies in the heart California in the east central, just about 190 miles due east of San Francisco. In 1890, Yosemite was constituted into a national park, and this means that its animals, plants, and land are protected by the government. The park is widely known for its waterfalls, meadows, streams, forests and other natural places. Yosemite is also a habitat to many animals which includes the black bear, coyotes, and the bighorn sheep, just to name a few, while also owls, lizards, snakes, and fish are evidently harbored at the park.

The park is also home to the giant sequoia trees that can grow up to 300 feet tall and are the largest existing things in the world. Although millions of people annually visit Yosemite for fishing, skiing, hiking, and camping expeditions, it is sad to note that many people have not visited the park despite living near the park. I live in the Central Valley where I can bear witness to this unfortunate fact that most who were born and raised here have never ever visited the park. It is in this view that I would like to encourage people living in the area and the world at large into visiting Yosemite on the following ecological facts which brings out the park’s serenity.

I. Flora and Fauna

For first time visitors, you will be deeply impressed with the park’s colossal granite cliffs of El Capitan, the domes of Yosemite Valley, Tenaya Canyon, and the incredible stylish waterfalls. It’s also hard to miss the soaring peaks above Tuolumne Meadows despite Yosemite being predominantly covered by a forest green landscape (Swedo 18-25). One also can’t help noticing the changing natural scene on different elevations while driving up the highways 41, 120, or 140 (Schaffer 17).  This elevation changes are noticeably seen in the tree species, grasses, wild flowers, but shrubs, and animals. The allotment of species in this park is variably influenced by climate, topography, fire, soil, and also other species. Yosemite is home to more than 300 species of vertebrate animals in which 85 of these are mainly native mammals, and its also habitat to a rare species of bats, therefore a good location for educational tours.

II. Geology

One cannot also miss the park’s rocky terrain which is a historical result of a volcanic reaction that caused the encroachment of overlying rocks by molten granite. This also resulted to the formation of the renowned Yosemite Valley which is arguably world’s most spectacular phenomenon (Schaffer 42). Yosemite is also where you will find the well-known Tahoe and Tioga glaciers which is a result of the glaciation process that began in earnest by 2 million years ago, and I do encourage this audience to see these vastly talked-about Valleys and glaciers in the whole world.

III. Human History

Above all, this park will take us all back to the rich human history that this country posses. It is home to the Homo sapiens who are the indigenous inhabitants of the Yosemite Valley (Schaffer 24).  One will learn about the Ahwahnechee tribe and culture, and its people who wandered the Yosemite landscape in search of food, trade and tribal interactions. The park is affluent in the Indians history and culture including other nearby plant communities.

 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Yosemite National Park not only brings out America’s natural beauty but it also represents other cultures and world observable facts that are only a few miles away. Its natural tranquility is excellent for social togetherness and expedition while also serving the sole purpose of appreciation of culture, natural beauty and history. So I do urge this audience to spare their time and take a visit to the Yosemite Natural Park where it’s best suited for experience, energy, time, and personal preferences, while its serenity exemplifies the true meaning of nature.

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Introduction

Digital communication between various computers is only possible by use of protocols, which are a set of standard rule that determine how data is to be transmitted in a network modern. With the need to establish a universal and interoperable communication platform, the International Organization for Standardization (OSI) established the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Reference Model; that was developed with the aim of establishing a universal digital communications platform. The layered approach deployed in OSI model plays an integral role in facilitating the implementation of security of network communications. In addition, the OSI reference model serves as a theoretical model that explains how network protocols are required to function. An important aspect of the OSI model is that its functionality significantly depends on the layered approach with each layer having a specific task in order to facilitate digital data exchange in a network. This essay outlines the specific tasks of the layers of the OSI model in facilitating data communication between computers (Christos, 2007).

Communication between the adjacent layers in the OSI reference model is facilitated through encapsulation, which refers to the adding of header to the data as it travels down from the topmost layer to the bottom most layer. On the receiving end, de-encapsulation takes place and entails the removal of header information from the data as it moves from the bottommost layers to the topmost layer. The OSI reference model is divided into seven layers, with each having a distinct functionality to facilitate data exchange in a network (Christos, 2007). The following diagram lists the OSI layers and their respective data names.

Layer name	Layer number	Data names
Application	Layer 7	Data stream
Presentation	Layer 6	Data stream
Session	Layer 5	Data stream
Transport	Layer 4	Segment/ Datagram
Network	Layer 3	Packet
Data Link	Layer 2	Frame
Physical	Layer 1	Bits

Source: Behrouz, F. (2001). Data communications and Networking. New York: Mc Graw Hill. Page 56.

The physical layer

This is the first layer of the OSI model and performs the conversion of frames to bits in order to foster data transmission over the network medium. On the receiving end, the physical layer converts the bits into frames so that they are used by the Data Link layer. The physical layer comprises of various device drivers, which determine the protocols to be used in the transmission and reception of data in form of bits. Some of the elements found in the physical layer include interface standards, electrical characteristics of the transmitting medium and a number of protocols. Using the device drivers and interface standards, layer 1 manages much of the throughput rates for the network hardware, ensures there is synchronization between analogue and digital signals, manages the noise levels and the mode of data transmission over the physical hardware, such as digital, analog or use of light pulses. Some of the network devices found in the physical layer includes repeaters, Network Interface Cards, signal amplifiers and hubs; these devices perform most of the hardware-based activities on the communication system (Behrouz, 2001).

The Data Link Layer

The fundamental function of the data link layer is to convert the data packets from the network layer into the appropriate format for transmission. The required format for transmission depends on the implemented hardware and technology in the computer network such as Ethernet, token ring, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The protocols used in the data link layer depend on the implemented technology responsible for transforming the data packets into formatted frames, after which they are delivered into the physical layer for transmission. Some of the protocols found in the data link layer include Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP), Point-to- Point protocol, Address Resolution Protocol and Serial Line Internet Protocol (Frye, 2007). In the data link layer, the hardware source and destination addresses are added to the data frames. The hardware address is usually in the form of Media Access Control (MAC) address that is 48-bit address. Some of the hardware devices found in layer 2 of the OSI model include switches and bridges, which have the capability to handle MAC-based traffic routing

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 Effective stress management results to various benefits not only to the individual well being but also to the society at large. However, many Individuals do not effectively manage stress until the conditions worsens. Adopting stress relaxing practices repels the negative outcomes of stress and at the same time results to positive aspects such as enhanced productivity, peace of mind and overall health in the long run (Lehrer et al, 2007).  During periods of stress, the body produces hormones such as adrenaline which prepares the body for fight and flight. After the incidence however, the body should relax but that is not always the case since the stressing situations arise day by day due to the modern lifestyle. Hence, stress hormones are continuously released by the body. Since the hormones are catabolic, they consume the stored energy which, would otherwise be utilized for normal growth and development by the cells (Lehrer et al, 2007).

As a result, effective ways of copping with stress comes in handy in eradicating stress hormones, which relaxes the body due to production of anti-stress hormones or endorphins, which increases the overall well being of an individual. Some of the way to achieve this is through visualization, journaling, progressive muscle relaxation (PMR), breathing exercises, guided imagery and meditative techniques. These practices aid in attainment of the alpha state, which may be referred to as self-hypnosis. The procedures curb the release of stress hormones (Lehrer et al, 2007).

Stress management declines the probability of heart patient to encounter a cardiac episode. Besides, it helps in cost savings as financial costs incurred by those individuals who engage in stress management is much lower as compared to those who do not. These benefits are long-term resulting to sustainable financial savings. Stress programs allow the patient to recognize physical, emotional, behavioral as well as cognitive outcomes of stress and positively respond towards them. It could be managed though enough sleep, right eating habits and regular physical exercises, listening to relaxing music, laughing and regular sex (Murphy & Schoenborn, 1993).

Excess stress may be detrimental to health since it causes headaches, improper digestion, heart illnesses, hypertension and stroke, which would be absent if stress management was practiced. Stress relieving improves health, which increase productivity and allows one to become organized and positively participate in the building of the society (Lehrer et al, 2007).

Additionally, stress management comes with a strong immune system to be able to fight against pathogens. Chronic stress destroys the immune system, which adversely affect an individual’s well being and therefore, it should be eliminated. Moreover, stress leads to major depression and in managing it, one is able to assess the signs of depression and therefore, prevent it from happening. Such aspects aid one to gain necessary skills in handling stressful scenarios. Stress management benefits the society in that individuals don’t have to boycott working or undergo workers’ compensation due to stress related disorders. One becomes more efficient, acquires positive attitude and therefore, more performance. Health wise, related symptoms decline, one gets enough sleep, less anxious, less use of medication, physiological relaxation and enhanced self-esteem (Murphy & Schoenborn, 1993).

Long term stress reduces the capacity to perform and attain maximum productivity at school and at the workplace, thus it should not be ignored. Besides, apart from affecting an individual’s well being it also determines the way one interacts with the environment and the society at large. One should not only determine the cause of stress but also have a stress journal, which is crucial to evaluate the degree of stress and its effects. This helps one to plan strategies to manage stress and regain control in life. One is also able to handle emotions for overall emotional wellbeing (Murphy & Schoenborn, 1993).

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Purpose

The main objective of this Standard Operation procedure is to develop a safe and systematic practice for collecting and analyzing samples of toxic wastewater from industries in order to determine the level of toxicity. The parameters for toxicity are in accordance with the international environmental law and policies as stipulated by the Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL). The procedures serve to ascertain whether the levels of toxicity are within the allowable limits of the CIEL and the wastewater pretreatments agreements of the company.

Applicability

The practices highlighted in this SOP are pertinent to environmental inspectors who evaluate the compliance regulations of wastewater treatment by various manufacturing industries, water treatment, and sewerage services companies (Philippe, 2006). In addition, this SOP practices are helpful to environmental compliance managers of factories that release wastewater to the nearby water bodies.

Summary

The international environmental law requires that factories should comply with the policy of environmental conservation. The fundamental approach to ensuring this is through ensuring that toxic levels of wastewater released by the factories are kept at the minimum levels possible. Detailed Chemistry is done in order to assess the toxicity of the effluent water from the Wastewater Treatment plant of the factory. In order to facilitate the analysis of levels of toxicity of the wastewater, samples of the pretreated water released by the company are required. Water samples can be collected instantaneously or compositely. The devices used to collect the samples can be either automatic samplers or Sample Dip Poles. Automatic samplers collect the wastewater samples periodically after a predetermined duration of time. After sampling, the effluent sample is preserved in more sample containers for future references when need arises. The sample is transported to CIEL laboratories under iced conditions in order to determine the toxicity levels (Spellman, 2010). The test results are compared with the allowable levels as stipulated by CIEL in the international environmental law and policy (Kaul, 2002).

Definitions

1. Toxicity levels refer to the percentage of toxic compounds that makes the wastewater harmful to the environment and its inhabitants. Some of the parameters used to evaluate toxicity levels include (Spellman, 2010):
2.  Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand (cBOD), which is the quantity of oxygen that aerobic microorganisms need in order to putrefy the organic matter found in the wastewater sample. The test results for cBOD describe the potential harm of the wastewater to the environment.
3. Escherichia Coli, whose presence denotes fecal contamination of the effluent water
4. Faecal Coliform, whose presence denotes human sewage contamination
5. Other parameters for describing toxicity levels include alkalinity, oil and grease scum, water hardness, and organic carbon levels are stated in the international environmental law and policies.
6. Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL) is an international organization based in Washington DC, and has the responsibility of ensuring that industries protect the environment in order to promote human health and protect the environment. The CIEL uses existing international laws to foster environmental protection.
7. Sampler refers to the environmental compliance inspector who has the responsibility of collecting wastewater samples for analysis and reporting the test results in accordance with the stipulated values under the International Environmental Laws and policies.
8. Detailed Chemistry refers to an in depth chemical analysis of the effluent with regard to the above parameters used to describe toxicity levels of the wastewater. Effluent in this case refers to the wastewater that the factory releases to the environment, which might have undergone treatment or not.
9. Factory refers to the specific industry that discharges wastewater to the environment directly or through a wastewater treatment plant.

Health and safety issues

Wastewater from factories is broadly categorized into sanitary wastewater and process wastewater. In some cases, it can be a combination of both sanitary and process wastewater.  Irrespective of the type of the wastewater, the sampler should treat all wastewater as if they contain a toxic compound until the time when the test results reveal otherwise. This toxic compound can cause human illness; therefore, the water samples should be handled with a lot of care (Spellman, 2010). The personnel in charge of collecting the wastewater samples should put on protective gloves, and the containers that hold the wastewater samples requires handling with adequate care (Spellman, 2010). The sampler should also put on other protective accessories such as waterproof safety boots that are steel-toed, protective headgear, eyeglasses, and earplugs in order to shield the sampler from environmental hazards. The working environment may change, and the sampler has to make sure that he ascertains the state of the working conditions before working. For example, slippery surfaces and edged working surfaces require testing prior to working.

Cautions

The sampler’s working environment is filled with various toxic chemicals, which may be present in the wastewater sample and those chemicals used in the preservation of the wastewater samples. For instance, Concentrated Sulfuric acid, Sodium Peroxide, and Strong Nitric acidare used in the preservation of the wastewater sample and cyanide samples. The three compounds are toxic and corrosive, implying that samplers have to handle them with great care. In addition, they should avoid skin contact with the above preservatives (Spellman, 2010).

In order to avoid contaminating the waste sample, the samplers should make sure that introduction of unnecessary contaminants to the wastewater samples are avoided at all costs. This is because the primary objective of wastewater sampling is to bring out the true state of the wastewater from the factories without compromise (Spellman, 2010).

Personnel Qualifications

The development of this SOP is meant to outline systematic procedures for Wastewater inspectors. All other personnel such as environmental compliance managers of factories, who may undertake the practices highlighted in this SOP must have the fundamental Wastewater Management Training and Wastewater Inspector Accreditation from NSF international. Another key skills requirement is basic expertise in conducting onsite inspections on wastewater treatment plants. In addition, the Certificate of Accreditation from NSF must be valid with a maximum duration of five years since the date of issuance. Technical expertise concerning health and environmental sciences is a significant requirement for personnel who will use this SOP to sample wastewater from factories (Philippe, 2006).

Additional training requirements for this SOP include six hours refresher training on sampling techniques, and on-the-job training concerning environmental ethics and ethical code of conduct associated with reporting cases involving violation of environmental laws.

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Introduction

            Personality tests are widely used in organizations to predict the current and the future behaviors or job performances of an individual. Personality is one of the world complex concepts for employers to evaluate employees. Personalities are believed to provide some useful information about an individual but sometimes provide fake personality answers. In this respect as quoted in Gladwell (2004), employers need to supplement personality tests with other individual evaluation and assessment in job performance. In fact, the question of proving personality test as a valid measure to predict individuals’ job performance and behavior can only be answered with benefit of doubt in mind (Management Issues, 2007). Thus the statement that, “Personality tests are not helpful in understanding how people behave or predicting how they will behave in future. Instead we should look at objects they chose to incorporate in their environment, such as passwords for their computers and “stuff” in their homes”, is chock-full of truth. The paper will focus to highlight on the key elements to agree with the statement. Most importantly, the paper will argue why employers or human resource departments need to add other test to personality test with employees’ evaluations and assessment.

Personality tests versus behaviors and performance

            As Heffner (2004) noted, individual’s perception plays an important role to how they perceive the world and the environment they live in, and contribute largely on how they perceive themselves.  Personalities of an individual thus is attributed by the social set ups and the attractions towards such social environments. Since environments are dynamics, individual’s perception is also dynamic and thus changes in personality. According to Heffner (2004), personalities of an individual are therefore measured by the attribution theory. Attribute is the direct response of a person’s behavior. The theory suggests that personalities (behaviors) are usually attributed by behaviors of others and the environment or the world surrounding an individual.  Behaviors can be from either internal or external attributed. Internal factors are within an individual while external factors are outside individuals’ proximities. Individuals’ personalities are influenced by perception towards environment, previous experiences in life and the level of knowledge towards particular aspects (Heffner, 2004). Thus, there is positive relationship between an individual performance, personality and the environment. This supports that personality tests are not helpful in understanding how people behave or predicting how they will behave in future. To understand a person’s personality, we need to include various environments attractiveness.

Most small enterprises, multinational growing or established organizations are using personality tests to gauge the productivity or the performances of the employees. American group of psychologists as quoted in Amble (2007), suggest that the personality test in most cases provide invalid indications of individuals performance levels. Personality tests responses are believed to be faked. Organizations have tried to alleviate the problem or mitigate the problems from the manipulated responses but the research indicates there are no short cuts. Personality tests can be divided into many categories depending on the type of personality tested on and the focus of the test. Personalities can be behavioral, biological, psychodynamic, trait or social-cognitive.  Personality test focuses on the internal and the external attractiveness of an individual.  Most personalities are either inborn or unconsciously reinforced by habits or environments. Biological personality tests measure the intelligence capacity of individual while social cognitive and psychodynamic measures the uncontrollable/unpredictable elements of an individual. Therefore, whereas some personalities test provides adequate predictability of individual’s performances like biological others do not match performance with the test like those controlled by external factors.

Like wise, individuals’ personalities can be divided into addictive personalities and un-addictive personalities. Psychological personality test focus or are structured to reveal the individuals inners life and the external behaviors. Depending on the nature of the personality test, it target to provide information regarding, ability and skills, interests, hobbies, achievements, intelligence and the personality. Addictiveness of an environment and the behavior evaluate accurately about future behaviors or work performances. The addictive habits of an individual cannot be revealed in a personality test. Actually, it is difficult to an employee to reveal some weakness that probably acts as pillars of their personalities. These manipulated responses to individual’s personality tests, thus can provide invalid prediction to work performance and future behaviors. This is supported by Robert Dipboye, where he suggest that employees should “engage employee to more open process to disclose what they are looking for a gain the trust of test takers rather than playing paper and pencil games with them” (Amble, 2007). In addition, the way people work, the kind of job they work, the environment their work in or the people they work with and the actions they exhibit in work is not captured in personality tests. These factors are vital attracting factors to individual’s personality, behaviors, and the future job performances (Paul, 2005). Performance in the work environment is usually dependent on the skills, experience or the people in the working environment. Thus, personality test should incorporate the objects they chose to incorporate in their environment, such as passwords for their computers and “stuff” in their homes.

In the past, employers are faced with difficulties in evaluating and measuring individual personalities that influence job performances. Measuring productivity using individuals’ personality inventories and responses on test have brought forth mixed results. Personality tests do not bring to test the link between all the individuals’ characteristics and the specific behaviors to produce reliable and accurate results. The major factors tested in work place are broken down to minor and hidden individuals’ attributes that still play a crucial role in performance and behaviors. Some of these hidden factors are categorized as attitudes, socialization, relationships, excitement seeking, and motivation in work, social influences and the unmet needs (Gladwell, 2004). For example, a person’s albums usually can say more of the hidden personalities. The albums can be clear indicators of individual personality as indicated by research paper published by journal of personality and social psychology (Allen, 2003). Music preferences are some of personalities need to be understood. Based on the kind of music an individual prefer can exhibit the kind of personalities she/he possesses. For example, hard rocks, hip-hop, and heavy metal music are attributed to physical active and adventurous, physical attractive personalities (Allen, 2003). Other interesting personalities in individuals are revealed in pin numbers, password or secret words. These secretes are hidden personalities in an individual and reveal what ones like most. Most of passwords depend on the most frequent usage terms, what click to a person mind unconsciously, or individual unconscious focus. According to Andrews (2004), people choose passwords unconsciously to stick in their minds that turn to be of an emotional significance.  Gardner & Dixit (2008), further supported that individuals stuffs such as books , novels, music, places their go, arts they like reveal individuals personality. Thus, employees should rethink the approach of gauging, evaluating or assessing individual personalities when hiring (Harris, 2004).

Conclusion

            In this regard, personality test as measures lack validity, are easily faked or manipulated, are therefore generally unsuitable as personality predictors in work performance or future individuals behaviors. In fact, personality tests are useful in clinical disciplines and not in the work environments. Some personality tests are used by psychologists and medical experts to predict the behaviors of individuals and not performances. Therefore, work environment need to embrace the contribution of other factors to evaluate work performances or prediction of an employee in future. I agree with the statement that, “Personality tests are not helpful in understanding how people behave or predicting how they will behave in future. Instead we should look at objects they chose to incorporate in their environment, such as passwords for their computers and “stuff” in their homes”

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Introduction

Market leaders’ managers and leaders lead their organisations by devoting company’s resources, procedures, convections, and business ethics towards accomplishment of business goals. For organisations to achieve the stated objectives and goals, managers need to implement and follow four functions of management. Essentially, management is solving problems applying creativity in organisations. According to Mitchell & Casey (2007), management and leadership are essential for all organisations including police force. The four functions of management are planning, organisations, staffing and directing, and controlling. In business operations, these functions are used as creative tools and applications to solve problems. This paper examines their applicability in police department. Importantly, the paper relates the creative applications of the four functions in the police department management and leadership.

Planning

               Planning is the basic function of management. In police department, planning is assumed as an ongoing process of management. This function is applied in developing department’s mission and objectives. It includes all the perspectives of the department ranging from the broadest view to the narrowest view of managing department operations.   According to Mitchell, & Casey, (2007) planning facilitates deciding the journey towards success in the policing department. Planning determine the courses of actions to achieve department mission, objectives, and goals. Planning is thus a systematic creative thinking ways and means to achieve organisation set targets.

Police department ensure proper, effective, and efficiency utilization of both financial and non-financial resources through planning. Police leaders and senior officer apply the creative function to manage resources effectively thus shunning uncertainties, risks and wastages of department resources. It requires the police administration to assess, evaluate, and determine where the organisation is presently and setting goals and objectives to be attained in the future.  The opposite of the function is regarded as informal planning that means unsystematic and lack of proper coordination in operations. Lack of planning function in organisations especially in police department causes improper accountability of resources; department become short sighted, and increases probability of crisis management (Mitchell & Casey, 2007).

Organising function

               Resources need to be organised in an orderly manner to facilitate accomplishment of department goals. Planned alternative courses of actions need to be put in practise through resources organisation. Through organising, department is able to assign different duties and obligations to the employees/junior officers and create a hierarchy of command system within the department.  This is usually done by organising the planned targets, and providing priorities in a systematic orderly manner that ensures no deviations from the predetermined targets. Besides all the plans being organised, the department assign job to be done, and appraise the progress of the job. This enables a smooth progress towards attaining goals in the department. Some of the advantage that accrues due to organising function within the department include coordination and promote creativity. In addition, good organisations of resources and organisation structure facilitate organisation growth and provide a hierarchy of power and authority (Mitchell, & Casey, 2007).

Staffing and leading

               Staffing refers to filing organisations internal positions. It involves recruiting, hiring, training and development, continuous appraisal, promotions and transfers, and compensations programs in organisation. Leadership is another vital function in organisation and especially in police department (Mitchell & Casey, 2007). In a nut shell, managers refer the function as process of manning organisation structure and putting the right personnel at the right position. The objective of the function is to provide conducive working environment, creating friendly employees relationship and solving organisations problems and conflict accordingly. This enables managers to confine within department dynamics and leadership styles in their management job. Communication is another pillar for staffing and leading. Successful managers implement and develop effective communication systems within the organisation. Successful communication further improves coordination, organisation of resources, and helps police seniors within the department to direct plans effectively.

Controlling

               This is the fourth and the last function of management. The function involves setting of performance standards based on predetermines objectives. The process establish performance standard, measure performances, compare actual and predetermined performances and take corrective actions to control deviations. Police department controlling function involves measuring and controlling subordinates, with a view to accomplish goals and objectives desired. According to Koontz & Weihrich, (2006) controlling refer to the process of checking the progress towards goals and objectives and if need arise, taking corrective courses of actions to correct or prevent deviations. The department’s controlling functions focus on ensuring that, everything occurs conventionally with the standards established or predict any deviations putting preventive strategies in place. Seniors overcome consequences of deviations through proper communication and implementing excellent control systems. In addition, the department controls are developed to affect the personnel. Behaviours control is the primary target by the control systems implemented in police departments (Mitchell & Casey, 2007). Behaviours conforming to the organisation’s goals increases effectiveness in communication, reduce interpersonal conflicts, and enhance employees’ satisfaction. The outcome of proper control system is successful goals and objectives achievement.

Conclusion

 Organisation’s efficiency and effective management apply all the functions of management accordingly, leading to successful objective attainment. The four functions provide a platform in which managers and leaders work with creativity to solve organisations problems. Police department has to look and implement a feasible process of achieving desired goals and objectives.  Adoption to the four managerial functions leads to successful achievement of organisations goals.

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In the past 150 years, resources from the environment were in plenty to sustain the population present then. This led to minor or no intentions to preserve the environment. Demand for production was not high by this time since the environment seemed insusceptible to degradation. Environmentalist Barry Commoner argued that most of the available resources can not be irretrievably lost and so increased input will earn some increased outputs.

For the last 100 years, human population has drastically changed to an increased population. Within this period of time, development has been so fast in ecosystems dynamics, science and other phenomenon. Due to the increased population, consumption of natural resources has been made to increase. Production has then been required to provide for human needs thus living and non-living natural resources have been converted to these products (Ghosh, 2008).

The growing population has owed to the disruption of the wildlife to date. It is by mismanagement that resources have been scarce for human use thus turning to the environment for resources. Though scarce resources can be replaced by substitutes, efforts on environmental conservations should be conducted to maintain the preferred ecosystem. The economic development of the human population such as cultivation has led to loss of soil fertility as soil has been made prone to erosion. Hunting and gathering which has been practiced as leisure and as an economic activity has enacted great impact to wild animals. They have led to a decrease in population of wildlife.

Human population in the present has disrupted vegetation thus affecting plant life. This has been done through improper land use such as use of fires to clear vegetation thus disrupting the ecosystem (Goudie, 2006). In the present situation individuals have denied environmental conservation by pollution on the environment and depletion of resources for industrialization. Conservation to the environment has been denied and poor management has led to a disrupted ecosystem.

Maintaining biological diversity

There are many reasons for maintaining biological diversity, thus there is a need to conservatism, since each specie has an important role no matter how small it is. The earth’s biodiversity is important in life in that it provides the basic necessities to man such as food, medicine, wood for making shelter, fiber for making clothing and other industrial products (Miller & Spoolman, 2008).

Biodiversity is simply the variety of life and its processes. Logging itself will cause loss of habitats to species for example logging in the Northwest which has led to endangering of the owl. Loss of specie’s habitat will lead to its extinction. Loss of the specie will therefore result to loss of population of other species since there is interdependency of species in an eco system.  It is important to maintain biodiversity and save endangered specie so as to maintain their presence in the future. Timber companies claim that efficient wood collectors fund new investments and have created stable labor demands to the population. Forest managers have argued that logging is a solution to crowded and fire prone forests thus incur the importance of logging. Though the timber industry restriction will led to laying off of workers, it is important to maintain a balanced eco system and conservation of the forests should begin by curbing logging.

An initiative of replacing the cut down trees should be started and the cut one plant two trees policy enacted to timber companies. Other alternatives to replace timber products should be started for example use of other sources of fuel rather than wood. Non native trees should be cultivated for supplying the timber companies rather than logging the native species which habitats most species such as birds. Paper recycling factories should be initiated to process and recycle used paper. This will create employment opportunities for workers since labor work force will be required. The recycling will reduce demand for paper pulp thus reduced logging. As opposed to timber companies, the well being of one bird is crucial for its depletion will lead to an imbalanced ecosystem. Its extinction will also disrupt other species since species are interdependent in an ecosystem. It is therefore an important measure in maintaining biological diversity.

Environmental threats affecting the national parks

National parks are practically reserves set aside for animal and environmental protection and are prohibited from most development so as to nurture their habitats. Though the environment is protected it poses threat to the national parks. The protection of animals (wildlife) in the parks experience great threats which depress the sustainability of the wildlife in these parks. The major threats facing the national parks are environmental. These threats include climate change which causes great loss to wildlife species. This is as a result of changes in the climate such as change in average rainfall thus disrupting wild life. Natural disasters such as volcanoes, earthquakes, forest fires, floods and lightning cause a great threat to wildlife. These disasters have played a role in habitat loss of wildlife thus fewer natural wildlife habitats are reserved on occurrence of these calamities (Hunter, 1999).

Pesticides and chemicals which have been used on the environment to kill unwanted species incur environmental pollution to the parks. These chemicals do not only confer toxic effects to the favorable species but also harm the plants and wildlife. Introduction of non native species in the parks also pose a great threat to wildlife since they degrade the native species. Weeds also affect wildlife by replacing native vegetation therefore eliminating native plant species from the environment. This creates feeding options to animals since some of the weed species are toxic to animals. Intruders in the parks such as poachers, loggers, and miners enter parks illegally threatening wildlife in the parks (Miller & Spoolman, 2008) Machinery in the parks such as off road vehicles have led to the destruction of vegetation and disturbed wildlife in the parks. These machinery, have been used by tourist who explore or visit the parks. Human activities such as logging, mining, oil drilling, livestock grazing have disturbed wild life in many parks.

National parks in the USA can be used more sustainably by prevention of certain threats which endanger parks. The park services should employ enough personnel to fight invasions by intruders such as poachers and loggers. The personnel should also aid in controlling and guiding tourists who visit parks in the USA. Machinery usage such as use of snow mobiles in the parks should be avoided or else minimized so as to sustain vegetation. Urban development around parks should be avoided as this will lead to degradation of the park. Human activities around or in the park should not be allowed since it causes pollution to the wildlife in the park. With consideration of these factors parks in USA can sustainably be used.

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Yes. Humans can be said to be inherently selfish, which is further upset through social and environmental interactions. The genetic pool affects human’s physical behavior either positively or negatively. Human behavior results from genetic factors. This for instance is proved by studying identical twins that have been exposed to different environment in their upbringing. They have portrayed various resemblances in relation to lifestyles as well as personal preferences. For instance, there are cases when twins, having been separated on birth, have reflected having similar preferences in relation to use of given brands or having preferred similar career paths. These are some of the instances that clearly show that behavior is genetically predetermined and therefore the notion of being selfish is genetically true.

Additionally, human are a collection of genes that are selfish, which have interacted to ensure persistence and therefore heredity. Besides, the biologist Michael Ghiselin once stated that “Scratch an ‘altruist,’ and watch a ‘hypocrite’ bleed.” The quote is taken to mean that human compassion and generosity are a part of personality. However, these are just illusions, which are utilized in manipulation of others to satisfy personal genetic means.  As a result, human thinks that they perform tasks on behalf of other persons but, instead it is a way to satisfy their inherent selfishness. In relation to this aspect, consider this illustration, how does a man saves a child from drowning? These two individuals are not genetically related. Thus, from evolutionary logic, the savior’s choice to save the drowning child is not sensible since he even exposes himself to a danger of drowning himself. As a result, he would not even have an opportunity to bear his own offspring for a child who could not even help him in relation to genetics. This shows a spirit of self sacrifice, being powerful, swift and trustworthy. If there is a woman nearby, who witnesses such an incidence, she is able to notice such traits and as a result of the action, the woman is attracted to such a man and even willing to mate with him. Exhibiting altruism has proven beneficial for individuals since they have earned trust, acquired many friends and preferred by the opposite mate in comparison with those who exhibited selfishness. As a result, genetically speaking, humans physically exhibit selflessness to advertise themselves with another selfish genetic motive. It is therefore true to say that human behaved in the manner they do in order to achieve a genetic conquest.

Human beings have shown a willingness to help others within their environments even without any returns to the extent of sacrificing themselves or having to undergo certain expenses, which reflects altruistic behavior. Why is there such a deep need to help other people irrespective of one’s socio-economic, ethnic, sexual or cultural backgrounds? Children go to the extent of mimicking mature persons around them. These are genetically driven motives, which may appear selfless but are genetically predisposed. These are selfish genes, makes up human thoughts designed as social, dependable and supportive through environmental stimulation in order to trigger their operation. For instance, a child cannot learn how to speak if no one trains him or her and through imitating others, due to altruistic drive to fit within the population. If one does not recognize and reinforce such values, the genetic component may fail to express cooperation empathy and altruistic acts. Man is born selfish and becomes social as a result of upbringing and moral training, but the behavior is best expressed due to its reinforcement, need to be competitive and thus craft a positive difference.

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